- The Roman Empire should not be mistaken for the Holy Roman
Empire (843–1806).
Roman empire at its maximal extent (117 AD)
The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman
state in the centuries following its reorganization under the leadership of Caesar Augustus. Although Rome possessed a collection of tribute-states for centuries before the autocracy
of Augustus, the pre-Augustan state is conventionally described as the Roman Republic. The difference between the Roman Empire and the Roman
Republic lies primarily in the governing bodies and their relationship to each other.
For many years, historians made a distinction between the Principate, the period from Augustus until the Crisis of the Third Century, and the Dominate, the period from Diocletian until the
end of the Empire in the West. According to this theory, during the Principate, from the Latin word princeps , meaning "the first," the only title Augustus would permit himself, the realities of
dictatorship were cleverly hidden behind Republican forms, while during the Dominate, from the word dominus, meaning
"Master", imperial power showed its naked face, with golden crowns and ornate imperial ritual. We now know that the situation was
far more nuanced: certain historical forms continued until the Byzantine period,
more than 1000 years after they were created, and displays of imperial majesty were common from the earliest days of the
Empire.
Over the course of its history, the Roman Empire controlled all of the Hellenized states that bordered the Mediterranean sea, as
well as the Celtic regions of Western Europe.
The administration of the Roman Empire eventually evolved into separate Eastern and Western halves, more or less following this
cultural division. By the time that Odoacer took power of the West in 476, the Western half was clearly evolving in new directions, with the Church absorbing much of the
administrative and charitable roles previously filled by the secular government. The Eastern half of the Empire, centered around
Constantinople, the city of Constantine the Great, remained the heartland of Roman successor states until 1453, when the Byzantine Empire fell
to the Ottoman Turks.
The Roman Empire's influence on government, law, and monumental architecture, as well as many other aspects of Western life
remains inescapable. Roman titles of power were adopted by successor states and other entities with imperial pretensions,
including the Frankish kingdom, the Holy Roman Empire, the Russian/Kiev
dynasties (see czars), and the German
Empire (see Kaiser). See also: Roman culture
The Age of Augustus
Political Developments
As a matter of convenience, the Roman Empire is held to have begun with the constitutional settlement following the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In fact, the Republican institutions at Rome had been destroyed over the preceding century
and Rome had been effectively under one-man rule since the time of Sulla.
The reign of Augustus marks an important turning point, though. By
the time of Actium, there was no one left alive who could recall functional Republican institutions or a time when there was no
civil war in Rome. Forty-five years later, at Augustus's death, there would have
been few living who could recall a time before Augustus himself. The average Roman had a life expectancy of only forty years. The
long reign of Augustus allowed a generation to live and die knowing no other form of rule, or indeed no other ruler. This was
critically important to creating a mindset that would allow hereditary monarchy to exist in a Rome that had killed Julius Caesar for his regal pretensions. Whether or not the people of Rome
welcomed one man rule, in the Age of Augustus, it was all they knew, and so it would remain for many centuries.
Augustus's reign was notable for several long-lasting achievements that would define the Empire:
- The creation of a hereditary office which we define as Emperor of Rome.
- The fixing of the payscale and duration of Roman military service marked the final step in the evolution of the Roman Army from a citizen army to a professional one.
- The creation of the Praetorian Guard, which would make and
unmake emperors for centuries.
- Expansion to the natural
borders of the Empire. The borders reached upon Augustus's death remained the limits of Empire, with minimal exceptions, for
the next four hundred years.
- The creation of a civil service outside of the Senatorial structure, creating a continuous weakening of Senatorial authority.
- The lex Julia of 18 BC and the lex Papia Poppaea of AD 9, which rewarded childbearing and
penalized celibacy.
- The promulgation of the cult of the Deified Julius Caesar throughout the Empire, and the encouragement of a quasi-godlike
status for himself in his own lifetime in the Hellenist East. This tradition lasted until the time of Constantine, who was made both a Roman god and "the Thirteenth
Apostle" upon his death.
Cultural Developments
The Augustan period saw a tremendous outpouring of cultural achievement in the areas of poetry, history, sculpture and
architecture.
Sources
The Age of Augustus is, paradoxically, far more poorly documented than the Late Republican period that preceded it. While
Livy wrote his magisterial history during Augustus's reign and his work covered all of
Roman history through 9 BC, only epitomes
survive of his coverage of the Late Republican and Augustan periods. Our important primary sources for this period include:
Though primary accounts of this period are few, works of poetry, legislation and engineering from this period provide
important insights into Roman life. Archeology, including maritime archeology, aerial surveys, epigraphic inscriptions on buildings, and Augustan coinage, has also provided valuable evidence about economic, social and military conditions.
Secondary sources on the Augustan Age include Tacitus, Dio Cassius, Plutarch and Suetonius. Josephus's Jewish Antiquities is the important
source for Judea in this period, which became a province during Augustus's reign.
The heirs of Augustus: the Julio-Claudians
Augustus's strategy of intermarriage between the Julii and Claudii resulted in a combination of family and political relationships known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Tiberius
The early years of Tiberius' reign were peaceful and relatively benign. Tiberius
secured the power of Rome and enriched the treasury. However, Tiberius's reign soon became characterized by paranoia and slander.
In 19, he was blamed for the death of his nephew, the popular Germanicus. In 23, his own son Drusus died. More and more, Tiberius retreated into himself. He began a series of
treason trials and executions. He left power in the hands of the commander of the guard, Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius himself retired to live at his villa on the island of Capri in 26, leaving Sejanus in charge. Sejanus carried on the persecutions with relish. He also began to consolidate
his own power; in 31, he was named co-consul with Tiberius and married Livilla, the emperor's
niece. At this point, he was hoist by his own petard; the Emperor's paranoia, which he
had so ably exploited for his own gain, was turned against him. Sejanus was put to death, along with many of his cronies, the
same year. The persecutions continued apace until Tiberius's death in 37.
Caligula
At the time of Tiberius's death, most of the people who might have succeeded him had been brutally murdered. The logical
successor (and Tiberius's own choice) was his grandnephew, Germanicus's son Gaius (better known as Caligula). Caligula started out well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's records.
Unfortunately, he quickly lapsed into illness. The Caligula that emerged in late 37 may have
suffered from epilepsy, and was more probably insane. He ordered his soldiers to
invade Britain, but changed his mind at the last minute and had them pick sea shells
on the northern end of France instead. It is believed he carried on incestuous
relations with his sisters. He had ordered a statue of himself to be erected in the Temple at Jerusalem, which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not been dissuaded. In 41, Caligula was assassinated
by the commander of the guard Cassius Chaerea. The only member left of the imperial family to take charge was another nephew of
Tiberius's, Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus, better known as the emperor Claudius.
Claudius
Claudius had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his
family. He was, however, neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor insane like his nephew Caligula, and was
therefore able to administrate with reasonable ability. He improved the bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He also proceeded with the conquest and colonization of Britain (in 43), and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. In Italy, he constructed a winter port at
Ostia, thereby providing a place for grain from other parts of the Empire to be brought in inclement weather.
On the home front, Claudius was less successful. His wife Messalina cuckolded him; when he found out, he had her executed and married his niece, Agrippina the younger. She, along with several of his freedmen,
held an inordinate amount of power over him, and very probably killed him in 54. Claudius was
deified later that year. The death of Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the 16-year-old Lucius Domitus, or, as he
was known by this time, Nero.
Nero
Initially, Nero left the rule of Rome to his mother and his tutors, particularly Lucius
Annaeus Seneca. However, as he grew older, his desire for power
increased; he had his mother and tutors executed. During Nero's reign, there were a series of riots and rebellions throughout the
Empire: in Britain, Armenia,
Parthia and Judaea. Nero's inability to
manage the rebellions and his basic incompetence became evident quickly and in 68, even the
Imperial guard renounced him. Nero committed suicide, and the year 69 (known as the Year of the Four Emperors) was a year of civil war, with
the emperors Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian ruling in quick succession. By the
end of the year, Vespasian was able to solidify his power as emperor of Rome.
The Flavians
Vespasian
Vespasian was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given rule
over much of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. He had supported the imperial claims of Galba; however, on his death, Vespasian became a major contender for the throne. After the suicide of Otho, Vespasian was able to hijack Rome's winter grain supply, placing him in a good position to
defeat his remaining rival, Vitellius. On December 20, 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were able to occupy Rome. Vitellius was
murdered by his own troops, and the next day, Vespasian was confirmed as Emperor by the Senate.
Vespasian was quite the autocrat, and gave much less credence to the Senate
than his Julio-Claudian predecessors. This was typified by his dating his accession to power from July 1, when his troops
proclaimed him emperor, instead of December 21, when the Senate confirmed his appointment. He would, in later years, expel
dissident senators.
Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. By
increasing tax rates dramatically (sometimes as much as doubling them) he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and
embark on public works projects. It was he who first commissioned the Roman Colosseum; he also built a forum whose centerpiece was a
temple to Peace.
Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces. His generals quelled rebellions in Syria and Germany. In fact, in
Germany he was able to expand the frontiers of the empire, and a great deal more of Britain was brought under Roman rule. He also
extended Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of Spain.
Another example of his monarchical tendencies was his insistence that his sons Titus
and Domitian would succeed him; the imperial power was not seen as hereditary at
this point. Titus, who had some military successes early in Vespasian's reign, was seen as the heir presumptive to the throne;
Domitian was seen as somewhat less disciplined and responsible. Titus joined his father in the offices of censor and consul and helped him reorganize the senatorial rolls. Upon Vespasian's death in 79, Titus was immediately confirmed as Emperor.
Titus
Titus' short reign was marked by disaster: in 79, Vesuvius erupted in Pompeii, and in 80, a fire decimated much of Rome.
His generosity in rebuilding after these tragedies made him very popular. Titus was very proud of his work on the vast
amphitheater begun by his father. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice during the year 80, celebrating
with a lavish show that featured 100 gladiators and lasted 100 days. However, it
was during Domitian's reign that the Colosseum was completed. Titus died in 81, at the age of
41; it was rumored that his brother Domitian murdered him in order to become his successor.
Domitian
Domitian did not live up to the good name left for the family by his father and elder brother. While his offenses may have
been exaggerated by hostile later generations, it is clear that he did not like to share power. It had become accepted by
Domitian's time that the emperor would simultaneously hold many of the magistracies established during Republican times (for instance the censorship and the tribunate), but it was still customary for other
politicians to have those powers as well. Domitian wanted to claim authority for himself alone, causing him to alienate the
Senate as well as the people.
"Five good emperors"
The next century came to be known as the period of the "Five
Good Emperors", in which the successions were peaceful though not dynastic, and
the Empire was prosperous. They were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.
Crisis of the third century
The Crisis of the 3rd Century is a commonly applied name for the crumbling
and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 275
CE. During this period, Rome was ruled by more than 35 individuals, most of them prominent generals who assumed Imperial power
over all or part of the empire, only to lose it by defeat in battle, murder, or death. After 35 years of this, the Empire was on
the verge of death, and only the military skill of Aurelian, one of Rome's greatest
emperors, restored the empire to its natural boundaries.
See: Crisis of the Third Century
Related Topics
Ancient Historians of the Empire
Writing in Latin
- Livy - his history is of the Roman Republic, but he wrote during the reign of Augustus
- Suetonius
- Tacitus
- Ammianus Marcellinus
Writing in Greek
- Eusebius of Caesarea
- Sozomen
Latin Literature of the Empire
- Apuleius
- Augustine of Hippo
- Horace
- Juvenal
- Ovid
- Petronius
- Virgil
See also
External links
References
18th and 19th century histories
- Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
(1776 - 1788)
Modern histories of the Roman Empire
- J. B. Bury, A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the
death of Marcus Aurelius (1913)
- J. A. Crook, Law and Life
of Rome, 90 B.C. - A.D. 212 (1967)
- S. Dixon, The Roman Family
(1992)
- Donald R. Dudley,
The Civilization of Rome (2nd Edition) (1985)
- A.H.M. Jones, The Later
Roman Empire, 284-602 (1964)
- A. Lintott, Imperium Romanum:
Politics and administration (1993)
- R. Macmullen, Roman
Social Relations, 50 B.C. to A.D. 284 (1974)
- M.I. Rostovtzeff,
Economic History of the Roman Empire (2nd ed., 1957)
- R. Syme, The Roman Revolution
(1939)
- C. Wells, The Roman Empire
(2nd Edition) (1992)
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