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The following considers the role of women in Judaism.
The role of women in classical Judaism
(This section will briefly survey the role of women in Judaism during its formative years, in the time period of the
Mishnah (up to 200 CE) and the time period of the Talmud (up to 600 CE).)
See also Old Testament views on women.
The role of women in medieval Judaism
(This section will briefly survey the role of women in Judaism from the post-Talmudic era up until The Enlightenment.)
Both the Tanakh and the Talmud allow
polygamy; however the Torah's stories imply that monogamy is the preferred and ideal state; the Talmud itself teaches that monogamy is the ideal that all people
should follow. In most Jewish communities, polygamy has not existed in any significant form for thousands of years. In the
10th century C.E., Rabbi Gershom of Germany issued a rabbinic decree
banning polygamy, and his ruling was accepted by all Ashkenazi Jewish
communities. Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews were not affected by the ban and continued the practices, most commonly in the isolated Yemenite Jewish
community. Rabbi Gershom noted that, while polygamy exists in the Bible, every
instance thereof leads to unhappiness and suffering: Abraham's wives Sarah and Hagar hate each other; Jacob's second wife Leah in
unloved and miserable, and her sons grow to hate her sister Rachel's son, Joseph. He also concluded that legal polygamy
constituted chilul Hashem -- it created a negative image of Jews in the eyes of non-Jews.
Even before Gershom's ban, the Talmudic precept "dina de'malkhuta dina" -- "the law of the state is the (Jewish) law"
-- had outright prevented polygamy for all Jews living in countries where civil law banned it. In those cases when it was not
prevented, it was still remarkably rare. Each of the rabbis of the Talmud -- whose written redaction spanned from before the
Common Era to the 5th century C.E. -- was married to exactly one woman.
Rabbi Joseph Telushkin
notes that, had God seen polygamy as the ideal, He would have created "Adam, Eve, and Joan."
Women in Modern Judaism today
(This section will briefly survey the role of women in Judaism from The Enlightenment until today.)
In the late 18th century Europe, and then the rest of the world, was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements that
taken together were referred to as the Enlightenment. These
movements promoted scientific thinking, freethought, and allowed people to question previously unshaken religious dogmas. Judaism
developed several responses to this unprecedented phenomenon. Initially, the European Jewish community began to develop into two
separate worldviews; one of which saw the enlightenment as positive, and one of which saw it as negative. The enlightenment meant
equality and freedom for many Jews in many countries, so it was felt that it should be warmly welcome. Scientific study of
religious texts would allow Jews to study the history of Judaism, and one could discover how it had developed over time.
In response to these issues, Jews favouring the enlightenment developed into a community known as Reform Judaism, and Jews opposed to the enlightenment developed into a set of
loosely linked communities known as Orthodox Judaism. A third
school of thought developed which held that Jewish law was not static, but should develop in response to changing conditions.
This approach gave birth to the communities now known as Masorti Judaism, Conservative Judaism, and Traditional Judaism.
Each of these movements has developed their own response to feminism and the role of women in the modern world.
Women in Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism views men and women as having different but
complementary roles, and thus different obligations. This is similar to the traditional interpretation of some other religions,
for instance Islam. In the area of education, women were traditionally exempted - and
often banned - from any study beyond a basic understanding of the Torah, and the rules
necessary in running a Jewish household. Women were discouraged from learning Talmud
and other advanced Jewish texts. Women are exempt from having to follow most of the set daily prayer services, and most other positive time bound mitzvot
(commandments), such as wearing tefillin. (There are a number of notable
exceptions). As such, the halakha (traditional law codes) specify that women
are not eligible to be counted in a minyan, as a minyan is a quorum
of those who are obligated.
Many people view these elements of Orthodox Judaism as sexist.
Rules of modesty
See main article: Tzeniut
Orthodox Jewish men generally do not touch, gaze at, or sit next to women other than their wives or relatives, for reasons of
modesty. They also do not touch their wife while she is menstruating, for a short
period after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. This also includes indirect contact; for instance a plate would not be
passed on directly, but first put down on a table so that both do not hold on to the object at the same time. They also include
additional restrictions against, for example, flirting.
Changes in the Orthodox position
One of the first major breaks with the traditional role of women came from within the Orthodox movement, by the Chofetz Chaim, Rabbi Yisroel Meir HaKohen (1838-1933). He overruled the traditional prohibitions against advanced training of women on the basis that times have
changed, and that in the modern world it is now important for women to have an advanced Jewish education. In 1917 the Bais Yaakov
(House of Jacob) network of Orthodox Torah schools for women was founded by Sarah Schenirer in Krakow.
Recently, a few leaders in the Modern Orthodox community have set up schools that bring advanced Jewish studies to women,
including Stern College at Yeshiva University, and the Drisha Institute (both in
New York City). At recent conferences on Feminism and Orthodox Judaism, a
small but growing number of Orthodox Jews have proposed that it may be acceptable for the Orthodox movement to ordain women as
rabbis. In a growing number of places, Orthodox women have established their own tefila (prayer) groups. It should be
noted that this phenomenon is still an anomaly within Orthodox Judaism. Even at the flagship institution of Modern Orthodoxy,
Yeshiva University, some Talmud teachers publicly denounced and forbade the concept of women praying together in a women's
tefila group. Most Orthodox Jews reject the idea of ordaining women as rabbis, as they feel that this is an unacceptable
deviation from tradition.
At recent conferences on Feminism and Orthodox Judaism, a small but growing group of liberal Modern Orthodox Jewish activists
have proposed that it may be acceptable for women to become Orthodox rabbis. Until recently, this was considered an impossible
goal. In recent years a small but growing number of Modern Orthodox rabbis have opined that women can take on many of the roles
of a rabbi, and that some form of rabbinical-like ordination for women is possible. A few
rabbi-like positions for Orthodox women have been created, but none grant the title "rabbi"; the Orthodox community is still
ambivalent on this issue.
Women in Conservative Judaism
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how Conservative
Judaism views women. Although its original position differed little from the Orthodox position, Conservative Judaism has in recent years produced responsa and innovative rituals which minimize the legal differences between men and women. The Committee on
Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) of the Rabbinical
Assembly has approved a number of responsa on this topic. Responsa have been accepted that justify women's active
participation in areas such as:
- Publicly reading the Torah (ba'al kriah)
- Being part of the minyan
- Being called for an aliyah to read the Torah
- Serving as a Cantor (shalich tzibbur)
- Serving as rabbi and halakhic decisor (posek)
- Wearing a tallit and tefillin
A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be
more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women,
including:
- Matrilineal descent. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if
the mother is Jewish.
- Serving as witnesses. Women do not usually serve as legal witnesses in those cases where Jewish law requires two witnesses.
One opinion of the CJLS affirms that women may serve as witnesses. However, most Conservative rabbis currently affirm this only
as a theoretical option, because of concern for Jewish unity. A change could result in many Orthodox Jews refusing to recognize
the legitimacy of many marriages and divorces. A current Conservative solution is in the area of weddings: A new custom is to use
Ketubot (wedding document) with spaces for four witnesses to sign; two men, and two women.
- Pidyon Habat, the ceremony based on the Biblical redemption of a newborn son. Conservative Judaism prohibits performing
Pidyon Ha-Bat on a newborn daughter. Pidyon Ha-Bat is a newly proposed ceremony that would mark the redemption of a newborn
daughter; the CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a Simchat
Bat (Welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah
by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]
Women in Reform Judaism
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how Reform Judaism views
women as well. Reform Judaism now believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that Jews are
bound by halakha (Jewish law and tradition), and holds that all of its members and
clergy have total personal autonomy in deciding how to practice their faith. As such, Reform Judaism ignores traditional
prohibitions on women's role in Jewish life, and holds that women, if they decide to do so, may peform any ritual done by a man,
such as:
- Publicly reading the Torah (ba'al kriah)
- Being part of the minyan
- Being called for an aliyah to read the Torah
- Serving as a Cantor (shalich tzibbur)
- Serving as rabbi and halakhic decisor (posek)
- Wearing a tallit and tefillin
American Reform Judaism has rejected the traditional Jewish view of matrilineal descent. Instead, they hold that if any one
parent is Jewish, then the child is automatically Jewish if that child is raised as a Jew. The movement has never formally
defined what it means to raise a child as a Jew; as such, Reform rabbis note that the de facto standard is that anyone with a
single Jewish parent or grandparent is considered Jewish within the Reform community, even if they have not been raised as a
Jew.
External links
References
Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources, Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition Blu Greenberg, Jewish Publication Society
Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
Women Who Would Be Rabbis Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
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