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Religion is belief in the divine, supernatural, or sacred that results in worship; that worship itself; the institutional
or culturally-bound expression of that worship; or some combination of these.
Approaches to the study of religion
Religion is subject to much study and discussion in the fields of theology,
sociology, anthropology,
and among ordinary people.
The Rationalistic approach to the study of religion emphasizes observable
aspects: its beliefs about the divine, the ritual practices that those beliefs inspire, the institutions that arise to control
those beliefs and practices, and the explanations which those beliefs offer for such mysteries as the origin of the world and the
nature of life and death. This approach makes it possible to conveniently classify things as either "religious",
"anti-religious", or "secular" in relation to that religion. Unfortunately,
this approach is poorly suited to defining the border between religious and non-religious thought when dealing with the
phenomenon of religion as a whole.
There exist other schools of thought which emphasize those aspects of religion which are not easily observable. One such
approach, sometimes referred to as “Hebrew thought”,
defines religion according to its function, how the beliefs play themselves out in the life and actions of an individual who
holds the beliefs. From this standpoint, a “religion” is any set of beliefs that defines origins, present status
(ontology), and the goal and means by which it is to be reached (teleology), giving reasons for “moral” actions. Any system of beliefs which
fulfills any of these functions—including some that are not normally considered religions, such as Communism, philosophical naturalism, and evolution (whose
explanation of human origins is interpreted as a creation
belief)—is ipso facto a religion.
The main advantage of this definition is its ability to include seamlessly all of the beliefs and practices that are
considered religious. According to its advocates, another advantage of this approach lies in its recognition of the fact that the
phenomenon usually perceived as conflict between “religion” and “anti-religion” is in fact competition
between different fundamentalisms. The inclusiveness of this definition
is viewed as a disadvantage by its detractors, who see a distinction between secular belief systems with some ontological,
teleological, or moral elements and actual religions. Another problem is that some people feign one religion for public
consumption while actually practicing another religion, or practice multiple contradictory religions at the same time, thereby
casting doubt on the supposition that a religion may have a definite function, even within a single society.
More generally, an important disadvantage of any approach to defining religion which emphasizes those aspects of religion
which are not easily observable, such as its function, is the inherent difficulty of agreeing on the nature or even the existence
of those aspects. In contrast, some (not all) religions’ formal aspects are easy to agree upon, making it possible to make
them the basis for an anthropological or sociological analysis. Consequently, most major thinkers prefer to examine the formal,
observable aspects of religion. The rest of this article considers religion from this perspective.
What do most religions have in common?
The word religion probably derives from the Latin word ligare,
meaning "to join", "to link" or to bind (although the OED describes this as uncertain). The
prefix re- may mean means "back" or "again", or may be an intensifier, so religion could be literally
translated, variously, as "binding back", or as re-linking or re-joining, or as "binding strongly". According to the first
interpretation, religion is understood by many modern English-speakers to mean the reconnection of human and the alleged
divine. Accordingly, one might begin by defining religion as a system of beliefs based on humanity's attempt to explain the universe and natural phenomena, often involving one or more deities or other
supernatural forces, also requiring or binding adherents to follow
religious obligations. Such a system of beliefs can be distinguished from branches of philosophy such as metaphysics which seek to address many of
the same questions. In ancient Greece, and in the Judeo-Christian context, especially later on when Christianity became the
backdrop of European thinkers, a distinct line was drawn between metaphysics and religion. In the Indian philosophic tradition,
however, religion and philosophy were until very recently inseparable, especially in Hinduism and Buddhism. Whether or not the philosophy of religion is regarded as being part of metaphysics
is therefore dependent on the faith system considered.
Two identifying features of religions are that to some extent they all (a) require faith and (b) seek to organize and influence the thoughts and actions of their adherents. Because of this, some
contend that all religions are to some degree both unempirical and dogmatic and
are therefore to be distrusted. A system of thought that is purely rational would be a science rather than a religion, and a system that is not in the least dogmatic would be unable to guide its
adherents in any way. On the other hand, schools of thought within many religions strive to embody rationalism (for example, the
Nyaya school of Hinduism), and many claim to use unimpeachable logic in defending their
dogmatic ontological and moral concepts.
Religious practices
Practices based upon religious beliefs typically include:
- Prayer
- Worship
- Regular assembly with other believers
- A priesthood or clergy or some other religious functionary to lead and/or
help the adherents of the religion
- Ceremonies and/or traditions unique to the set of beliefs
- A means of preserving adherence to the canonical beliefs and practice of that religion
- Codes for behaviour in other aspects of life to ensure consistency with the set of beliefs, i.e., a moral code, like the Dharmashastras of Hinduism or the Ten Commandments of the Old Testament,
flowing from the beliefs rather than being defined by the beliefs, with the moral code often being elevated to the status of a
legal code that is enforced by followers of that religion
- Maintenance and study of scripture, or texts they hold as sacred uniquely
different from other writings, and which records or is the basis of the basic beliefs of that religion
Adherents of a particular religion typically gather together to celebrate holy days, to recite or chant scripture, to pray, to worship, and provide spiritual assistance to each other. However, solitary practice of
prayer and meditation is often seen to be just as important, as is living out
religious convictions in secular activities when in the company of people who are not necessarily adherents to that religion.
This is often a function of the religion in question.
Comparing religion to spirituality
Many Westerners prefer to use the term spirituality rather than
religion to describe their form of belief. This may reflect a large-scale disillusionment with organized religion that is
occurring in much of the Western world (see Religion in Modernity). However,
proponents of some forms of spirituality may represent a movement towards a more "modern"—more tolerant, less
counter-factual, and more intuitive—form of religion. This is evidenced by apparently greater religious pluralism and movements such as the ecumenical movement within and transcending Christian denominations. There are
corresponding moderating movements within Islam and other religious traditions.
In the East, however, spirituality is viewed as inseparable from religion. The Indic religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism) have always had incorporated into their very
framework primary focuses on spirituality. Yoga, for example, was a natural outgrowth of
the Vedic, Tantric, and Buddhist traditions, and is an extremely detailed, rational, and scientific approach to developing
control of mind and body for the purpose of realizing spiritual truths such as uniting with the Divine. It built into the
structure of scriptural injunctions and various cultural frameworks a universal understanding of the divinity of man. Thus, we
see that spirituality has, in many Eastern religions, no separate existence.
Spirituality, in its Western comprehension, is religion cut loose from some of its bureaucratic trappings. The concept is
neutral with regard to tolerance, etc. The same disillusionment often leads in the opposite direction, toward intolerance and
violence. Many extreme sects lay claim to a higher spiritual basis. Some of those professing to have attained a higher spiritual
plane are actually manipulative and intolerant.
It is possible, and perhaps advised, to keep in mind that there can be a rigid distinction between the mundane, earthly
aspects of religion and the spiritual dimension. People can gain security from such things as regular attendance at Church,
deepening knowledge of Scripture, and the social comfort of fervently agreeing with other believers. This sometimes is done
without a corresponding spiritual dimension. Some people see this as being distant from God, but very 'religious'. Conversely
those who consider themselves deeply involved with the Divine may have come to reject much of the recognised aspects of
established religion. Indeed, some would feel that this is central to the beliefs of the founders of some religions: for example,
Jesus was very critical of traditional interpretations of the established Judaism, and
the perceived hypocrisy of some of its adherents at the time.
People disagree about whether religions have a spiritual or supernatural basis; an example of this is the belief that the
modern ceremonies and canons of the Church have almost completely grown away from, or even are contrary to, the presumed original
Divine revelation or source. This belief has arisen throughout history. One example is found in pre-Reformation Christianity,
when 'Indulgences' (excusal of sin) were for sale, and corruption was endemic in Church appointments. Today, some would hold that
extreme religious practices such as some punishments under Sharia law, or the
historical burning of heretics, was not at all what God intended. Others find those practices repugnant to the secular ethics of
a modern liberal democracy.
Religion in certain faith-systems can therefore draw itself into disrepute through the weaknesses of its practitioners, while
spirituality can be independently, but invisibly, strong and flourishing.
Religion in modernity
In the late 19th century and throughout most of the 20th century, religion, especially Christianity, has seen great reductions in its
relative power and membership, and, to a lesser degree, to its reputation. Some historically Christian Western countries,
particularly in Europe, show declining recruitment for priesthoods and monasteries, and studies in the UK show a
fast-diminishing attendance at churches, synagogues, etc. The demographic group that is "losing faith" the most rapidly is the most-educated classes.
Explanations for this effect include the security and comfort afforded by modern technology, the materialistic philosophical influence of science,
the development of what some call "secular religions" such as Marxism and Humanism, and the hostility that many feel toward evangelical religions in
an age that places greater emphasis on toleration. However, in many parts of the world, religion is far from declining. In the
United States and in Latin America, for instance, studies show that religion is as strong as ever, and in the Middle East fundamentalist Islam has been
growing rapidly, as attested to by the rise of extremist movements in Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, and many other Islamic
states. Messianic Judaism has seen a great deal of growth over
the last forty years.
Modern causes of rejection of religion
As noted above, in the much of the developed world mainstream
religions have been on the decline. This decline is apparently in parallel with increased prosperity and social well-being. It
appears increasingly common for people to engage in far-ranging explorations, with many finding spiritual satisfaction outside of
organized churches. This is a demographic group whose numbers are growing and whose future impact cannot be predicted. The
reasons for the decline in mainstream religions are complex and ill-understood, but include the following:
- Restrictiveness: Many religions have (or have had in the past) an approach that produces, or produced,
practices that are considered by some people to be too restrictive, e.g., regulation of dress, and proscriptions on diet and
activities on certain days of the week. Some feel that religion is the antithesis of prosperity, fun, enjoyment and pleasure.
This causes them to reject it entirely, or to see it as only to be turned to in times of trouble.
- Self-promotion: Some individuals place themselves in positions of power and privilege through promotion of
specific religious views, e.g., the Bhagwan interlude, the Moonie movement, and other cults. Such self-promotion has tended to reduced public confidence in many things with a 'religion'
label. Similarly, highly publicized cases of abuse by the clergy of several religions have tended to reduce public confidence in
the underlying message.
- "Promotion of ignorance": Many atheists and agnostics see early childhood education in religion and spirituality as a form of
brainwashing or social conditioning, essentially concurring with the Marxian view
that "religion is the opiate of the masses," with addiction to it fostered when people are too young to choose.
- "Common sense" objections: Religions postulate a reality which verges on the metaphysical, and even some believers have difficulty accepting religious assertions about the
supernatural realm and about the afterlife.
- Objections to particular forms of practice: People can form a negative view, based upon the manifestations
of religion, e.g., ceremonies which appear pointless and repetitive, arcane clothing, and exclusiveness in membership
requirements.
- Rationalist or skeptical objections: Some people believe the body of evidence available to humans to be
insufficent to justify certain religious beliefs. They may thus disagree with religious interpretations of ethics and human
purpose, and theistic views of 'creation'.
- Insufficient Zeal: Some 'modern' religious lifestyles are so similar to secular ones that the followers are
not greatly distinguished from non-religious individuals. People needing strong religious experience may, therefore, turn away
from these 'mainstream' religions towards ones with a more traditional outlook.
Modern causes of adherence to religion
All of the above causes for skepticism are based on experiences in this, mortal, lifetime. Religious believers are often sad
to see that people disagree with the churches' perspectives on spiritual, 'eternal' beliefs by concerns they consider to be based
on limited and transitory features (given the potential for an afterlife). Additional reasons for continuing adherence to
mainstream religion include the following:
- Moderation': Many religions have approaches that produce practices that place limitations on the behaviour
of their adherents. This is seen by many as a positive influence, potentially protecting adherents from the destructive or even
fatal excesses to which they might otherwise be susceptible. Many people from many faiths contend that their faith brings them
fulfillment, peace, and joy, apart from worldly interests.
- Authority: Most religions are authoritarian in nature, and thus provide their adherents with spiritual and
moral role models, who they believe can bring highly positive influences both to adherents and society in general.
- Formation: Most religions see early childhood education in religion and spirituality as essential moral and
spiritual formation, whereby
individuals are given a proper grounding in ethics: instilling and internalizing moral discipline.
- Cultural factors: Some 'religious' individuals may have substantially secular viewpoint, but retain
adherence to religious customs and viewpoints for cultural reasons, such as continuation of traditions and family unity. Judaism,
for example, has a particularly strong tradition of 'secular' adherents.
- Supernatural connection: Religions postulate a reality which verges on the metaphysical. Most adherents of
religion consider this to be of critical importance, since it permits belief in a connection with unseen and otherwise
potentially unknowable aspects of life, providing hope of eternal life.
- Majesty and tradition: People can form positive views of religion based on the visible manifestations of
religion, e.g., ceremonies which appear majestic and reassuringly constant, and ornate cloth.
- Fulfillment: Most traditional religions require sacrifice of their followers, but, in turn, the followers
may gain much from their membership therein. Thus, they come away from experiences with these religions with the feeling that
their needs have been filled.
Scientific attempts to explain religion
All religions explain the reasons for their existence in their own terms. Modern scholarship, which may also be regarded as a
self-contained system of explanation, brings its own tools to the task of accounting for the phenomenon of religious belief in
naturalistic terms. Especially in the fields of neuroscience, neuropsychology, memetics and
evolutionary psychology, new breakthroughs offer a
hope of explaining religion in scientific terms.
Science seeks to explore the apparent similarities among religious views dominate in diverse cultures that have had little or
no contact, why religion is found in almost every human group, and why humans often seem to accept counterfactual statements in
the name of religion. In neuroscience, work by scientists such as
Ramachandran and his colleagues from the University of California, San Diego [1] suggests evidence of brain circuitry in the temporal lobe
associated with intense religious experiences. In sociology, Rodney Stark has looked at the social
forces that have caused religions to grow and the features of religions that have been most successful. For example, Stark, who
claims to be an agnostic, hypothesizes that, before Christianity became established
as the state religion of Constantinople, Christianity grew rapidly because it provided a practical framework within which
non-family members would provide help to other people in the community in a barter system of mutual assistance. In evolutionary psychology, scientists have considered the
survival advantages that religion might have given to a community of hunter-gatherers, such as unifying them within a coherent
social group.
Some cognitive psychologists, however, take a completely different approach to explaining religion. Foremost among them is
Pascal Boyer, whose book,
Religion
Explained, lays out the basics of his theory, and attempts to refute several previous and more simple explanations for
the phenomenon of religion. Essentially, Mr. Boyer claims that religion is a result of the misfunctioning or overfunctioning of
certain subconscious intuitive mental faculties, which normally apply to
physics (enabling prediction of the arc a football will take only seconds after its release, for example), and social networks
(to keep track of other people's identity, history, loyalty, etc.), and a variety of others.
Differences between religions
Western religions typically focus on a relationship and worship between the person and their higher deity. Eastern religions
typically focus on a process of living life for the next life or the here after. However, there exists a spectrum of religions
and practices between the dichotomy of relationship and process.
While some practitioners of the Abrahamic faiths or "people of the Book"
(Christianity, Judaism, and
Islam) each worship one all-powerful God, each of these religions has different beliefs.
Many followers of each of these three religions openly oppose the idea that the three views point to the same God, pointing out
the many areas of disagreement as to God's nature, character, deeds and overall plan with humanity.
Jews believe that their deity is the one and only God, who revealed his Torah
(teachings) to Moses and other sages of Israel.
Christians accept this same God, but believe that the Christ has already appeared in the form of Jesus, in accordance to the Jewish Scriptures (such as in the books of Daniel and Isaiah). Unlike the Jewish belief
of Christ, the Christians proclaim that He came to earth to set God's children free from sin,
rather than from oppression. The central schism between the Roman
Catholic and Protestant Churches is that in the latter good deeds cannot
create or maintain a relationship with God. Virtuous deeds are supposed to simply flow from pure faith and a relationship with
God through entering that relationship with Jesus.
Messianic Renewed Judaism believe, just like Judaism does, that there is only ONE "Elohim" (the original word in the Tanach,
the Jewish Scriptures)but millions of Gods. Moreover, they maintain this Elohim has three Parts, or Dimensions, just as man has
three parts: spirit, soul and body, as per 1st Tessalonians 5:23, since he was created by this same
Elohim-in-three-Parts/Dimensions. Thus, the Rebbe Yeshua is the physical manifestation of the Jewish Elohim, and not an idol, but
simply the ultimate enunciation of an all Powerful Elohim, who chose, in His omnipotence, to take human form, a decision
expressed in the prophecied name, "Emanu´El", meaning "Elohim with us:El=Elohim; Emanu=among us."[2] This, it claims to have solved the long
standing difficulty of Yeshua claiming to be a Part of Elohim/"God."
Muslims, like the Jews, differ with the Christians as to the divinity of Jesus, but accept the Virgin Birth as a miracle of God. The role of Jesus in Islam is as the Messiah and amongst the distinguished prophets, one of whom is Muhammad, believed to be the final and last messenger. The Five Pillars of Islam are the five required deeds or
rituals needed to relate to the holy God. Jews and Christians often perceive the Muslim God as being very different than their
own in terms of nature and character, although that is hotly debated.
Although there is a tendency, in the West especially, to speak about religion in terms of God not all religions believe in a
creator god. For example, Jain cosmology is strongly atheistic and the original forms of Taoism and Buddhism are also non-theistic.
Questions that religions address
Religions are systems of belief which typically answer questions about the following concerns:
- the divine, the sacred and the supernatural,
- our purpose as beings, on earth, goals in this life and possible other states of being like heaven, nirvana, purgatory or hell,
- what happens to us when we die and how to prepare for that,
- the nature of Deity (or Deities) (cf God) and
what She, He, They or It wants from us,
- our relationships with the divine, the sacred, ancestors, other believers, nonbelievers, and the natural world around us;
that is, how to behave properly in relation to others.
Generally, the different religions and the non-religious all have different answers for the above concerns. Hence, scholars
can classify a religion according to the characteristic answer the religion gives for the above concerns.
Comparison of sources of authority
In addition, scholars can classify a religion according to the nature of the authority to which the religion refers.
- Universal religions sometimes have no prophetic founder, although they may
have had an early "champion" or crafter of that religious viewpoint. For example, Hinduism claims to be the science of the spirit. The various gods of
Hinduism are the projections of One Reality that transcends subject/object split on the mind.
- Polytheistic religions involve many deities. Usually, each deity is
considered a separate entity (as opposed, for instance, to Christianity which considers the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as one).
Polytheistic religions often flourish in less centralized societies, where each individual can adapt a portion of the religion as
their own. This kind of religions gives more freedom to the practitioners who often hold to little dogma. Examples of polytheisms
include the mythologies of ancient Greece and Egypt, and modern Pagan revivals such as Asatru (see also Neopaganism).
- Shamanistic religions are a broad category of religions based around worship
of ancestors or spirits rather than "Gods." Shamanistic religions typically are limited to small geographical areas and rarely
achieve national or international organization.
- Pantheistic or natural religions see everything in nature an aspect of a
spiritual plane. Such faiths include (to various degrees) Shintoism and several
animistic traditions.
- Some religions, alternatively termed spiritual philosophies, emphasize extensive practical teachings for achieving human happiness or
equanimity in the natural world with a lesser focus on the supernatural. Examples: Zen,
Taoism, and Confucianism.
- Communism is one example of a political philosophy with many of the
characteristics of a religion. Those include "sacred" texts, rituals, and the near-deification of certain leaders. Its official
policy is atheism, however, indicating that neither religion nor the absence of it is
a reliable indicator of character.
Generally while individual religions may differ in sources of authority, they share many common traits, such as ritual, concern with the afterlife, regulation of social behavior, and belief in the supernatural.
Dealing with others' religions
Adherents of particular religions deal with the differing doctrines and practices espoused by other religions in several ways.
Examples of each exist within most major religious systems. People with exclusivist beliefs typically explain other religions as
either in error, or as corruptions or counterfeits of the true faith. People with inclusivist beliefs recognize some truth in all
faith systems, highlighting agreements and minimizing differences, but see their own faith as in some way ultimate. People with
pluralist beliefs make no distinction between faith systems,
viewing each one as valid within a particular culture. Pluralists and inclusivists may borrow from more than one faith system for
their own religious practice. However, it should be noted that in many areas different faith systems are integrated into one;
this does not fit the definition of pluralism. For example, in many tribal areas of Indonesia natives practice a mixture of Islam, tribal gods, and worship
of Adam and Eve.
Role of charismatic figures
Many religions have been deeply influenced by charismatic leaders, such as
Jesus Christ, Martin
Luther, Henry VIII, John
Calvin, Joseph Smith, Adi Sankara, Ramakrishna
Paramahamsa, Swami Vivekanada, Sai Baba, Muhammad, Gautama Buddha, etc. These leaders are either the central teacher and founder of the religion (e.g.
Muhammad, Jesus, or Gautama) or reformers or prominent persons.
The historical or legendary founders of some of the major world religions include Abraham and Moses (Judaism),
Zoroaster (Zoroastrianism), Siddartha Gautama (Buddhism), Jesus Christ (Christianity), Muhammad (Islam), and Bahá'u'lláh (Bahá'í).
Origin of religion
The origin of religion in general and for particular religions is controversial, since religions often claim to have been
derived directly from actions of God or god(s) to a chosen human messenger or messenger(s). By definition, followers of a
religion accept the claims, either literally or in a metaphorical, or partial fashion. Followers of a religion, although they may
have strongly held beliefs, may also be interested in looking at possible human origins for religious events, together with
non-religious enquirers.
Institutional religion came into being about 4000
years ago, roughly coincident with the invention of writing, and writing was long the
exclusive preserve of the priestly classes, and as such served to preserve their power and privilege. Coincidentally, this
corresponds with the writing of the *Tanach* (an acronym for the three Parts of the Jewish Scripture: the *Torah* (Instructions
for the salvation of the soul and body), the *Neviim*//Prophets,a series of books written for our spirit, and the *Ketuvim*, a
collection of books for our minds, which was dictated by the Jewish Elohim to His only wife (Jer.3:14), the Jewish People in
Hebrew. However the New Testament is almost universally regarded among scholars to have been written in greek, although some
scholars belonging to "Messianic Judaism" argue that it was originally written in hebrew [3]
.
However, Archeologists and historians debate whether religion was practised before the invention of writing. Non-believers hypothesize that
religion may have originated in stories created to account for the great questions of life, for comfort, to keep records of a
people's history, and/or for entertainment. It is also possible that atheists (those
who hold to the tenets of scientific materialism and do
not believe in any deities) or agnostics (those who believe we cannot know if
there are any deities) always existed as well.
Recent advances in cognitive psychology and neuropsychology suggest that religion might have its origins in the workings
of the brain itself. Pascal Boyer's book, Religion Explained, attempts to explain religion through cognitive psychology.
Physical evidence of origins of religion
Early human remains, art, and artifacts leave us clues as to their beliefs and practices, though interpretation of these
archaeological remains is problematic. Early human prehistory has scattered
physical evidence and no writings: for example, bones painted with red ochre may
signify a color symbolizing life rather than a belief in an afterlife, covering
the dead person's body with valuable possessions may derive from the belief that using the dead person's possessions will bring
bad luck. Imagine a future archaeologist digging through the remains of a Star
Wars fan's bedroom and consider the possible erroneous interpretations of such a find.
Later religious viewpoints, such as Christianity and Islam, point to a myriad of archeological evidence (i.e., comparisons
between archeological findings and the cities and people mentioned in their holy books) and manuscripts of early writings of
their religion. When archaeology was still in its early stages as a scientific discipline in the 19th century, many archeologists
attempted to find evidence contrary to the Bible, for example, and some became instead forceful witnesses to its overall
accuracy. These religious books are sometimes used to interpret archeological finds but are still considered by many to be an
unreliable guide. For example, the Jesus ossuary was precisely dated by this method before it was determined to be a fake by some, though this
is still debated.
Evidence from burial practices
Nevertheless, evidence for early civilizations' religious ideas can be found similarly in elaborate burial practices in which
valuable objects were left with the deceased, intended for use in an afterlife or to appease the gods. This custom has clearer
motives as it is usually accompanied by tomb paintings showing a belief of afterlife. It reached a spectacular form with the creation of the pyramids of Giza and the other great tombs of ancient Egypt; the
Sumerian royal burials, and other prehistoric (pre-written records) monument
builders.
Documentation of modern religions' beginnings
Religions created in modern times are often reasonably well documented (for example, Scientology). Minor religions have been, and still are, called cults,
while many scholars use the term New Religious Movement
(NRM). Reasons for the creation of religions are many, including a range from idealism to a desire to obtain wealth and power over others; the two may combine in interesting ways.
Practical benefits of religion
Religions may sometimes provide breadth and scale for visionary inspirations in compassion, practical charity, and moral
restraint.
Abraham Maslow's research after World War II showed that Holocaust survivors tended to be
those who held strong religious beliefs (not necessarily temple attendance, etc), suggesting it helped people cope in extreme
circumstances. Humanistic psychology went on to
investigate how religious or spiritual identity may have correlations with longer lifespan and better health. Humans may
particularly need religious ideas to serve various emotional needs such as the need to feel loved, the need to belong to
homogenous groups, the need for understandable explanations and the need for a guarantee of ultimate justice.
Maslow's results have not proved repeatable in other contexts. The critical factors may involve sense of purpose, extreme
beliefs in general, or other factors sometimes correlated with religious belief, and/or may be specific to Holocaust survivors.
The very fact that religion was the primary selector for research subjects may also have introduced a bias.
Christianity is noted for the founding of many major universities, the creation of early hospitals, the provision of food and
medical supplies to the needy, and the creation of orphanages and schools, amongst other charitable acts. Many other religions
(and non-religious organisations and individuals, eg: humanistic Oxfam) have also
performed equivalent or similar work.
Religion vs. mythology
Ancient polytheistic religions, such as those of ancient Greece, ancient Rome, the Vikings, etc., are often
studied under the heading of mythology. Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or
cultures in development to industrial conditions, are similarly observed by the
anthropology of religion. Mythology can be a term
used pejoratively by religious and non-religious people both, by defining another person's religious stories and beliefs as
mythology. Here myths are treated as fantasies, or "mere" stories. But the study of religions, and the investigation of myths by
psychology, not to mention how some myths turn out to have historical verification, has brought about a mixed, almost
contradictory use of the term: some NRMs such as Neopaganism actively
research and use myths from older religions, both those that still exist and those that have disappeared. Joseph Campbell, in The Power of Myth, held that myth was a universal human trait, and necessary to well-being. There is no essential difference between the myths of extinct religions and
those of extant religions.
A few religious critics view the elevation of philosophy
of science and "mathematical fetishism" as creating
a mythology, and call that an error, naming these practices scientism. These are
usually inseparable from debates about ethics in science.
Monotheism vs. polytheism
The dominance of monotheism among influential Western scholars of religion,
and theologians, proposed a division into monotheistic and polytheistic faiths.
The classification fails with a religion that places minute emphasis on gods but more importance on the individual's ability to
understand the ineffable (like Buddhism and Vedanta strands of Hinduism, which both express this as "seeing
things as they really are"). Christianity claims to be monotheistic,
although some writers find this idea problematic since Christian doctrine has developed a notion of God as one essence in three
persons (Father, Son and Holy Spirit), explained in the doctrine of the
Holy Trinity. The monotheism of Islam and Judaism is much more clear cut, although very early sources for
Yahweh show signs of henotheistic or
polytheistic origins or forerunners, which do not at all deny their sole Deity status once the religion became established.
Neopaganism (including Wicca and
Asatru), a group of religions generally considered to be polytheistic, is also
difficult to classify neatly. While adherents worship a diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses, a great many of them believe
those personalities to be facets of a single Deity, as in Bhakti (devotional) sects of
Hinduism.
See also
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