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Protestantism in the strict sense of the word is the group of princes and imperial cities who, at the diet of
Speyer in 1529, signed a protestation against the Edict of Worms which forbade the Lutheran teachings within the Holy Roman Empire. From there, the word Protestant in German speaking areas still refers to Lutheran churches in contrast to Reformed churches, while the common designation for all churches originating from the Reformation is
Evangelical.
In a broader sense of the word, Protestantism is any of the Christian
religious groups, of Western European origin, that broke with the Roman Catholic
Church as a result of the influence of Martin Luther, founder of the
Lutheran churches, and John Calvin, founder of the Calvinist movement. A third major
branch of the Reformation, which encountered conflict
with both the Catholics and other Protestants, is sometimes called the Radical Reformation, or Anabaptists. Some Western, non-Catholic, Christian groups are labeled as Protestant,
even if the sect acknowledges no historical connection to Luther, Calvin, or the Anabaptists. These sundry groupings, i.e.
Lutherans, Calvinists, Anabaptists, and other sectarians, are characterized in part by a lack of apostolic succession, in the
sense that their founders are not anointed successors of St. Peter.
Protestants are often considered to be another people 'of the book', in that they adhere to the text of the Bible, that they
grew out of the enlightenment and universities, that they attracted learned intellectuals, professionals, and skilled tradesmen
and silversmiths, that their belief is more abstracted than ritualized, and that the great dissemination of protestant beliefs
occurred with the translation by Protestants into native tongues from Latin (Greek and Hebrew) with the new technology of the
printing press. Protestants are also less fond of hierarchy, having relentlessly attacked the priestly cast and the Holy See's
authority, and thus are closely associated with the local control and political democratization during the 16th and 17th
century.
Origins of Protestantism
Protestants generally trace their separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 1500's, which is sometimes called the magisterial Reformation because it initially proposed numerous
radical revisions of the doctrinal standards of the Roman Catholic Church (called the magisterium). The protest erupted suddenly, in many places at once but particularly in Germany, during a time
of threatened Mohammedan invasion¹ which distracted German princes in particular. To some
degree, the protest can be explained by the events of the previous two centuries in Western Europe.
Unrest in the Western Church and Empire, which culminated in the Avignon
Papacy (1308 - 1378), and then the papal schism (1378-1416), excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the
monastic system. In addition, the humanistic Renaissance was stimulating an
unprecedented academic ferment, with a concomitant concern for academic
freedom. Earnest theoretical debates were ongoing in the universities concerning the nature of the church, and the proper
source and extent of the authority of the papacy, of councils, and of princes. One of the most disruptive and radical of the new
perspectives came first from John Wyclif at Oxford and then from Jan Hus at the University of Prague. Within the Roman Catholic Church, this debate was
officially concluded by the Council of Constance (1414-1418), which executed Jan Hus, and posthumously burned
Wyclif as a heretic. However, while Constance confirmed and strengthened the Medieval conception of church and empire, it could
not entirely resolve the national tensions, nor the theological tensions which had been stirred up during the previous century.
Among other things, the council could not prevent schism and the Hussite
Wars in Bohemia.
To some extent, the protest that began when Martin Luther, an
Augustinian monk and professor at the University of Wittenberg, called for reopening of debate on the sale of indulgences (or as tradition holds, literally nailed his 95 theses to the door of the
Wittenberg Church). It was a sudden outbreak with new and irresistible force of discontent which had been pushed underground but
not resolved.
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldreich Zwingli. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, as the recently introduced
printing press spread ideas rapidly from place to place but some
unsolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved
independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day Anabaptists. Other Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or humanism (cf. Erasmus), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the
churches.
After this first stage of the Reformation, following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the
Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a
loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. The separation of the Church of England from Rome under Henry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1536, brought England alongside the Reformation. However, change in England proceeded more conservatively than
elsewhere in Europe and alternated between traditional and Protestant sympathies for centuries, progressively forging a stable
compromise. Thus, the West was permanently divided into Catholic and Protestant.
Basic Theological Tenets
Four Latin slogans of the Reformation express some principal theological concerns of Protestantism, though they are not shared
by all Protestants. See also five solas.
- Solus Christus:
Christ alone.
- Only Christ is a mediator between God and man.
- Against the Catholic orthodoxy that Tradition (1 Cor 11:2; 2 Thess 2:15), the teachings of the College of Bishops united
with the Pope, the Bishop of Rome (Mt 16:18), shares primacy with Scripture for the handing-on of doctrine, Protestants argue that the Bible is the only rule of faith. This doctrine is connected with the doctrine of private
interpretation of the bible.
- In contrast to the Roman Catholic concept of meritorious works (cf. Jam 2:24; 1 Cor 13:2), of penance and indulgences,
masses for the dead, the treasury of the merits of saints and martyrs, a ministering priesthood who hears confessions, and purgatory (Mt 5:26), the Protestants argued that every believer is a priest and obtains reconciliation with God through faith in Jesus Christ, alone.
- Sola gratia: Grace
alone.
- Against the Roman Catholic view that faith and works necessarily occur together and that works flow from faith (cf. Jam 2:26;
Gal 5:6), the Reformers posited that salvation is a gift from God dispensed through Jesus Christ, regardless of merit - for no
one deserves salvation. The Roman Catholic Church, by contrast, posits that salvation is not dispensed through Jesus
Christ, but was effected by Jesus Christ, on the Cross at Calvary.
From the beginning, Protestantism was in agreement against the Roman Catholic dogma of
transubstantiation, which teaches that the substance of the
bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass is exchanged for the substance of Christ's body and blood (see Eucharist). However, they disagreed with one another concerning the manner in which the
believer is united with Christ through the Eucharist. The Lutherans held to a theory called consubstantiation (affirming
the substantial presence of Christ in or under the bread). The Reformed according to Zwingli
see the Lord's Supper as a memorial ceremony, denying the substantial presence of Christ but affirming that Christ is united to
the believer through faith (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism). The Calvinists affirm the real
presence of Christ in a manner different from Lutherans, saying that the Church has a new identity from Him in a manner
analogous to naming the bread "my body", effecting a spiritual union with the Church, symbolized and given by means of the bread,
by the Holy Spirit, through faith, but without changing the bread into Himself.
Major Influences on the Development of Protestantism
Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial
Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning
later movements in the same groups.
Holiness Movement and Pietism
The Holiness movement in the 17th and the 18th century, began after the English Puritan Reformation, joined on the continent of Europe the German Pietist movement, and returned to Britain in a changed form through John Wesley and the Methodist Church, as well as
through smaller, new groups such as the Quakers. The practice
of a spiritual life, often combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the
doctrine-centeredness Protestant Orthodoxy of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience.
Evangelicalism
Beginning at the end of 18th century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the Great Awakening), took place across denominational lines, which are referred to generally as the
Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were
individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, public morality often including Temperance and family values, and Abolitionism,
de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and
teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines.
Pentecostalism
Pentecostalism as a movement began in the United States early in the
20th century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a
return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy
Ghost" became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the
Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later "charismatic" movement also
stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations rather than coming out of them.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a label for various attempts to accommodate the doctrine and
practice, especially of the main branches of the Protestant churches, to the principles of the Enlightenment. These adaptations achieved critical momentum at the end of the 19th century in
the Modernist movement and the historical critical Bible exegesis.
Fundamentalism
In reaction to liberal Bible critique, Fundamentalism arose in the
20th century, primarily in the United States and Canada, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalism placed primary emphasis on the authority and
sufficiency of the Bible, and typically advised separation from error, and cultural conservatism, as important aspects of the
Christian life.
Neo-Evangelicalism
Neo-evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the 20th
century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority an emphasis on liberal
arts, co-operation among churches, Christian Apologetics, and
non-denominational evangelicalization.
Protestant Denominations
Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named
parts of the whole church. Some denominations, though, are less accepting of others, and some are so unorthodox as to be
questioned by most. But there are also denominations where the theological differences are very small. Other denominations are
simply regional expressions of the same beliefs found in other places under other names. The actual number of distinct
denominations is hard to calculate, but has been estimated to be in the tens of thousands. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to
various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions. Most denominations claim to have a certain unity with other
groups of Christians, but contain doctrines which fundamentally contradict each other.
Protestant Families of Denominations
Please note that only general families are listed here (tens of thousands of individual denominations exist):
Well-known Protestant Religious Figures
- John Wesley, founder of the Methodist movement
- Billy Graham, American evangelist
- Jerry Falwell, American religious/political activist
- Desmond Tutu, Anglican
Archbishop of Cape Town, peace activist
- Auguste Sabatier, founder of the French fideo-symbolist
tendency and of the Institut de Théologie Protestante [ITP], in Paris (1872)
- Paul Tillich, Lutheran theologian, involved in Process Theology
- John B. Cobb, theologian,
involved in Process Theology
- Martin Luther, Reformer, founder of Lutheranism
- Ulrich Zwingli, early Swiss religious reformer,
- John Calvin, Reformer, founder of Calvinism
- Philipp Melanchthon, early Lutheran leader
- John Knox, Scottish reformer,
- William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I of England
- George Fox, Founder of the Society of Friends
- George Whitefield, Great Awakening reformist preacher
- Jonathan Edwards, Great Awakening
reformist preacher
- Menno Simons, founder of Mennonitism
- Jacob Amman, founder of the Amish
church
- Andre Lortie aka Andrew Lortie, leading Huguenot
theologian and exile
- Pat Robertson, American fundamentalist leader
- Ellen White, American prophetess, founder of Seventh-Day Adventism
Footnotes
- 1 See How the Reformation Happened by Hilaire Belloc, pp. 48 ff. inter alia.
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