Portugal

Portugal is a republic on the Iberian Peninsula in the extreme southwest of Europe and in the Atlantic Ocean (islands of Azores, Madeira, and Savage). Mainland Portugal is bordered by Spain to the north and east and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south. Portugal claims Olivença or Olivenza, administrated by Spain, as part of its national territory. A citizen of Portugal is usually identified in English by the noun and adjective Portuguese, but can also be referred to as Luso or Lusitano (Eng. Lusitanian)¹.

Portugal's name is derived from the name of a settlement in the estuary of the Douro River, named Cale. Some historians believe that the name Cale is derived from the Greek word for beautiful, Kalles, because of the beauty of the area surrounding the Douro River where ancient Greeks are thought to have settled. Other historians claim that the name has a Phoenician origin, a civilisation that colonised the Portuguese coast in the Pre-Roman period.

The Roman Empire conquered all of the territory of modern Portugal and Cale grew into a successful Roman port, and and thus became known in Latin as Portus Cale (Eng. Port of Cale). During the Middle ages, King Luivegildus of the Visigoths and his successors coined currencies featuring the legend of Portucale. Portucale evolved into Portugale during the 7th and 8th centuries and by the 9th century was extensively used by in the region between the Douro and Minho rivers.

History

Main article: History of Portugal

Before the creation of the Portuguese state, Portugal was ruled by the Phoenicians (since 1104 BC), Carthaginians (since 258 BC), Lusitanians (native insurrection from 194 BC), Romans (since 218 BC), Suevi (since 409), Visigoths (since 416), Arabs (since 711), Asturians and Leonese (since 739).

Early Lusitania

Portugal has been inhabited for at least for 500,000 years. In the early first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and inter-married with local peoples. Two of the new tribes formed by the inter-marrying were the Lusitanians, who lived between the Douro and Tagus rivers, and the Calaicians who, lived north of the Douro river.

Lusitania Romana

Since 219 BC, the first Roman troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula and in 200 years almost the entire Peninsula was dominated and Romanised, after winning the "Punic Wars" against the Carthaginians that in 238 BC, who already occupied the Iberian coasts. Lusitania was especially hard to conquer, because of the leader of the Lusitanians, Viriathus, that since 194 BC re-conquered the entire Portugal and parts of Spain to the Romans. In 155 BC, the "Lusitanian War" between the Romans and Lusitanians begun. Because of treason from a companion, the resistance was over, and a colonial regime was installed; many Portuguese cities and towns were founded in this period. Since 27 BC, Lusitania gained status of Roman Province. Later, a new Province north of Lusitania was formed, known as Galecia, with capital in Bracara (Today's Braga).

Barbarian Invasions

In the 5th century, Germanic tribes, known as Barbarians, invaded the peninsula. One of which, the Suevi, stopped fighting and founded a kingdom whose domains was, approximately, in today's Portugal, they fixed their capital in Bracara. Later, the Visigoths conquered their kingdom, unifying the Peninsula.

Arabic Invasion and the Reconquista

An Islamic invasion takes place in 711 destroying the Visigoth Kingdom and the nobles take refuge in the north Asturian highlands. From there they re-conquest their lands to the Moors.

By the division of the Spains and following a Visigoth tradition after the death of Ferdinand the Great of Leon and Castile, whose domains were divided by his children, thus Portugal first became independent (as Kingdom of Galicia and Portugal) in 1065 under the rule of Garcia. Because Garcia was a tyrant and the others wanted the lands of their brothers, Portuguese and Galician nobles rebelled and the country rejoined Leon and Castile.

Affirmation of Portugal

In the end of the 11th century, a knight from Burgundy whose name was Henry became count of Portugal. And with him started the wish for independence ² of Portugal and he declared it when a civil war was going on between Leon and Castile.

Portugal traces its national origin to the Battle of São Mamede in 24th June 1128, when the first Portuguese King, Afonso I, son of Henry of Burgundy, proclaimed himself as Prince of Portugal and in 1139 as King of Portugal, outthrowning his mother, Teresa, Countess of Galicia and former Countess of Portugal. By the conference of Zamora in 1143, with the assistance of a representant of the Holy See, Portugal was recognized as independent ². and the prince as Dux Portucalensis. In 1179, Afonso I was declared, by the pope, as King. After the Battle, the first Capital of Portugal was Guimarães, from which the first King ruled. Later, when Portugal was already officially independent² he ruled from Coimbra (former roman Conimbriga). In 1249 - 1250, the Algarve is finnaly reconquest by Portugal to the Moors, and in 1255, the capital is shifted to Lisbon. Rio de Janeiro (Today a city of Brazil), also became the Portuguese capital between 1808 and 1821, with the loss of it's power, Brazil declares independence and Lisbon regained it's statute.

The border with Spain has remained almost unchanged since the 13th century. In other foreign relations, for example, in 1373 England and Portugal signed a treaty of alliance which has never been broken. To this day. Portugal has always turned towards the sea. Since early times fishing and overseas commerce have been the main economic activities. Henry the Navigator's interest in exploration together with some technological developments in navigation made Portugal's expansion possible and led to great advances in geographic knowledge.

Discoveries Odyssey: Glory of the Empire

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal eclipsed most other nations in terms of economic, political, and cultural influence and it had an extensive empire throughout the World.

July 25, 1415, marked the beginning of the Portuguese Empire, when the Portuguese Armada along with King John I and his sons Prince Duarte (future king), Prince Pedro, Prince Henry the Navigator and Prince Afonso, also with the mythical Portuguese hero Nuno Alvares Pereira departed to Ceuta in North Africa, a rich trade Islamic centre. On August 21, the city was conquered by Portugal, and the long-lived Portuguese Empire was founded. Further steps were taken which expanded the Empire even more.

In 1418 two of the captains of Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were driven by a storm to an island which they called Porto Santo, or Holy Port, in gratitude for their rescue from the shipwreck. In 1419, João Gonçalves Zarco disembarked on Madeira Island. Between 1427 and 1431 most of the Azorean islands were discovered.

In 1434, Gil Eanes turned the Cape Bojador South of Morocco. The trip marked the beginning of the Portuguese exploration of Africa. Before the turn, very little information was known about what lay around the cape. At the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th, those who tried to venture there became lost, which gave birth to legends of monsters. Some setbacks occured: in 1436 the Canaries were recognized as Spanish by the Pope, earlier they were recognized as Portuguese. Also, in 1438 in a military expedition to Tanger, the Portuguese were defeated.

However, the Portuguese did not give up their exploratory efforts. In 1445, Álvaro Fernandes turned Cape Verde (the cape) and 3 years later, on a small island known as Arguim off the coast of Mauritania an important castle was built, working as a feitoria for commerce with inland Africa, some years before the first African gold was brought to Portugal. In 1456, the Cape Verde Islands were discovered. In the following years, the caravels explored the Golf of Guinea which lead to the discovery of the islands of Fernão Poo, São Tomé, Príncipe and Annobón. Finally, in 1471, the Portuguese captured Tanger, after years of trying. Eleven years later, the fortress of São Jorge da Mina in the Golf was built. In 1483, Diogo Cão reached the Congo River.

A remarkable achievement was the turning of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 and the richness of India was now nearby, hence the name of the cape. Portugal, three years earlier, did not accept Christopher Columbus' idea of reaching India from the west, because it was seen as unreasonable. In 1489, the King of Bemobi gave his realms to the Portuguese King and became Christian. Between 1491 and 1494, Pêro de Barcelos and João Fernandes Lavrador explored North America. At the same time, Pêro da Covilhã reached Ethiopia. Vasco da Gama sailed for India, and arrived at Calecut on May 20, 1498, returning in glory to Portugal the next year. The Monastery of Jerónimos was built, and dedicated to the discovery of the route to India. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral sighted the Brazilian coast; more was explored in the following year. In 1510, Afonso de Alburquerque conquered Goa, in India.

The two million Portuguese people ruled a vast empire with hundreds of millions of inhabitants stretching from Brazil, Africa, to Ormuz in the Persian Golf, from Goa to Malacca and, from 1514, the Portuguese had reached China and Japan.

The very young king Sebastian signed the Carta Régia (Royal letter) proclaiming the freedom of the Brazilian Amerindians. Eight years later, in 1578, the king died in battle without an heir (the body was not found), leading to a dynastic crisis. The Cardinal Henry became ruler, but died two years after. Portugal was worried about the maintenance of its independence and sought help to find a new king. Because Philip II of Spain was the son of a Portuguese princess, Spain invaded Portugal and the Spanish ruler became Philip I of Portugal in 1580. Some men claimed to be King Sebastian in 1584, 1585, 1595 and 1598. A myth that the young king will return to Portugal on a foogy day has prevailed until modern times, and most people even at the end of the 19th century believed in it.

Decline of the Empire

Portugal gradually sees its richness decreasing. Even if Portugal was officially an autonomous state with Spain, the country was a puppet and Portuguese colonies started to be attacked by Spain's opponents. In December 1, 1640, a national king, John IV, is acclaimed, and a Restoration war against Spain is made. Ceuta governors' don't accept the new king and stays in Spain. The Dutch started to attack all the Portuguese Empire; Portugal regained some, but many were lost especially in Asia. Other new empires had emerged and also assault it.

The population massively immigrates to Brazil. In 1709, king John V prohibits emigration, has it lost very sizable amount of population. Brazil is elevated to vice-kingdom and Amerindians gain total freedom. Lisbon is destroyed in 1755 earthquake. Since 1801, the country is occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, and lose Olivença (part of the national territory) to Spain (ally of France). Short after losses its Kingdom of Brazil in 1822.

The First and Second Republics

A 1910 revolution deposed the Portuguese monarchy starting a period of chaotic republicanism (First Republic); in 1926 a nationalist military coup d'etat began a period of more than five decades of repressive fascist governments (Second Republic), but more stable financially and economically. In the 1960s, Portuguese India is annexed by India, what Portugal classified as invasion and demanded the return of it in the United Nations but without effort.

The Third Republic

In 1974, an effectively bloodless left-wing military coup (the Carnation Revolution) installed a government that instituted broad democratic reforms. The following year Portugal granted independence to its Faar-sea Provinces (Port. Províncias Ultramarinas) in Africa (Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe) and lost its province of East Timor in Asia to an Indonesian invasion. Portugal itself entered the European Union in 1986, whilst another Asian dependency, Macau, reverted to Chinese sovereignty in December 1999.

Portugal made international pressure to grant East Timor's independence from Indonesia (Portugal cuttted diplomatic relations with this country and prohibited the import of Indonesian products) and applied that East Timor was still a Portuguese dependency, recognized by the United Nations. Indonesia and other countries pressed Portugal to recognize Indonesian rule over East Timor, Portugal objected. After a referendum in 1999, East Timor votes for independence and became, officially, independent in 2002, Portugal recognized its independence and reactivated relations with Indonesia. This recognition officially ended the Portuguese rule in other areas of the world.

With the Independence of Angola in 1976, the Portuguese Empire has its end. But the return of Portuguese from the former colonies had made a significant increment of the population and economy, the country's road to rebirth was made.

See also: List of Portuguese monarchs - Kings of Portugal family tree - Timeline of Portuguese history - Monuments of Portugal - Lusitania - Lusitanian mythology - Ophiussa

Politics

Main article: Politics of Portugal

In the years following the 1974 coup Portugal has progressively done away with undemocratic institutions and established itself as a constitutional democracy. The four main organs of Portuguese politics are the presidency, the prime minister and Council of Ministers (the cabinet), the Assembly of the Republic (the parliament), and the Judicial branch.

The president, elected to a 5-year term by direct, universal suffrage is also commander in chief of the armed forces. Presidential powers include appointing the prime minister and Council of Ministers, in which the president must be guided by the assembly election results. The Council of State, a presidential advisory body, is composed of six senior civilian officers, any former presidents elected since 1976, five members chosen by the Assembly, and five selected by the president.

The government is headed by the prime minister, who names the Council of Ministers. A new government is required to define the broad outline of its policy in a program and present it to the assembly for a mandatory period of debate. Failure of the assembly to reject the program by a majority of deputies confirms the government in office.

The Assembly of the Republic (Assembleia da República) is a unicameral body composed of up to 230 deputies. Elected by universal suffrage according to a system of proportional representation, deputies serve terms of office of 4 years, unless the president dissolves the assembly and calls for new elections.

The national Supreme Court is the court of last appeal. Military, administrative, and fiscal courts are designated as separate court categories. A nine-member Constitutional Tribunal reviews the constitutionality of legislation.

Districts and regions

Main article: Political divisions of Portugal

Mainland Portugal is currently divided into 18 districts (distritos, singular - distrito): Aveiro, Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisbon (Port. Lisboa), Portalegre, Oporto (Port. Porto), Santarém, Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real and Viseu.

Beyond these there are two autonomous regions (regiões autónomas): the Azores (Açores) and Madeira. Each district and region is further subdivided into the Municipalities of Portugal.

Note: Portuguese Districts are slated to be abolished and replaced by new Metropolitan Areas and Urban Communities.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Portugal

Continental Portugal is split in two by its main river, the Tagus (Tejo). To the north the landscape is mountainous, though Portugal's highest point is Mount Pico in the Azores at 2,351 m. The south down to the Algarve features mostly rolling plains and the climate here is somewhat warmer and drier than the cooler and rainier north. Other major rivers include the Douro, the Minho and the Guadiana, similar to the Tagus in that all originate in Spain.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Portugal

Portugal has become a diversified and increasingly service-based economy since joining the European Union in 1986. Over the past decade, successive governments have privatised many state-controlled firms and liberalised key areas of the economy, including the financial and telecommunications sectors. The country qualified for the European Monetary Union (EMU) in 1998 and began circulating its new currency, the euro, on January 1, 2002 along with 11 other EU member economies.

Economic growth has been above the EU average for much of the past decade, but GDP per capita stands at just 75% of that of the leading EU economies. The government has failed to rein in a widening deficit and to advance structural reforms needed to boost Portugal's economic competitiveness. In particular, a poor educational system has been an obstacle to greater productivity and growth. Portugal has been increasingly overshadowed by lower-cost producers in Central Europe and Asia as a target for foreign direct investment.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Portugal

Portugal is a fairly homogeneous country linguistically, ethnically and religiously. Portuguese is spoken throughout the country, with only the villages of Miranda de Douro's Leonese dialect recognised as a locally co-official language as Mirandese, Asturian in Spain is another Leonese dialect but not officially recognized by Spain. Minorities, such as those of African immigrants from the former colonies, number circa 100,000, excluding those that acquired Portuguese nationality. Most inmigrants are from Cape Verde, Ukraine, Brazil and Angola; today there is 1 inmigrant per 10 Portuguese citizens. Since the decolonization period, Portugal almost only recieved inmigrants from the former African colonies (not considering Portuguese Africans) or from the European Union (due to climate, culture or easy living). Today is choosen by many Eastern European citizens (mainly Ukrainians, Russians and Moldavans) and Brazilians in search for a better life. Portugal was a country of emigrancy, now it is an obvious example of inmigrancy. A majority of the Portuguese population is part of the Roman Catholic Church.

International disputes

By the Vienna Treaty of 1815, Spain agreed to return Olivença (in Spanish, Olivenza) to Portugal, but this hasn't been done yet. Olivenza is administrated by Spain since 1801, Portugal has periodically reasserted claims that the handover be made. Portugal will discuss the Olivença's problem in the Portuguese parliament in June 25th, 2004.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Portugal

Religion

Portuguese are in its majority Roman Catholics (circa 97%), but the constitution garantees freedom of choice. In Portugal, Fátima is a very important catholic center, dedicated to the Mother of Jesus, Mary (in Portuguese, Maria). Portuguese people are very devoted to the Mother of Christ, being treated almost has a goddess, what made some believe that is a link to the dieties of the now distant past, that were mostly female.

Literature

Portugal is sometimes known as "a country of poets". In fact, Portuguese poetry has a bigger influence in the country's literature than prose. In the dawn of nationality, poetry in Portuguese-Galician was widely popular in all the Iberian Peninsula. There are excelent works, in lyrical as in epic poetry. Without a doubt, the most worldwide known Portuguese poets are Luis de Camões and Fernando Pessoa, but we should also state the modern Portuguese poetry (since the 19th century) has its roots in a handfull of relevant poets, from neo-classicism to these days.

Prose developed later than verse and first appeared in the 14th century in the shape of short chronicles, lives of saints, and genealogical treatises. The line of the chroniclers which is one of the boasts of Portuguese literature began with Fernão Lopes, who compiled the chronicles of the reigns of three kings of that time. He combined a passion for accurate statement with a especial talent for descriptive writing and portraiture. But, it is the modern Portuguese literature that is more internationally known, especially the works of Eça de Queirós and the 1998 Nobel Prize for literature, José Saramago.

Gastronomy

Eating in Portugal, is one of the visitor's most remembered characteristics of the country, as it is a delicious mixture of what Portugal found in its discoveries throughout the world. Each region of Portugal, has its traditional dishes, including various kinds of meat, cheap sea-food, diverse and fresh fish (including the 365 ways of cod dishes, the national dish). Portugal is the country for wine lovers, known since the Roman Empire as one of the greatest in the empire; the Romans immediately associated Portugal with its God of Winery and Feast, Bacchus. Today, many famous Portuguese wines are known as some of the world's best: Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho Verde, and the sweet: Port Wine, Madeira wine, Moscatel of Setúbal and Moscatel of Favaios.

Popular festivities

During the summer, in the month of June, festivities dedicated to three saints known as Santos Populares (Eng. Popular saints) take place in all over Portugal. Why the populace associated the saints to this pagan festivities is not known. But it is possibly related to Roman or local dieties before Christianity has spread in the region. The three saints are Saint Anthony, Saint John and Saint Peter. A common denominator in these festivities are the wine and água-pé (drink basically constitued by grape juice), traditional bread along with sardines, marriages, traditional street dances, fire, fireworks and joy.

Saint Anthony is celebrated in the night of 12 to 13th, especially in Lisbon (where that saint has born and lived most of his live), with Marchas Populares (sort of street carnival) and festivities. In the meantime, several marriages known as Casamentos de Santo António (EN Marriages of Saint Anthony) at the same time are made. But the most popular saint is Saint John, it is celebrated in many cities and towns troughout the country in the night of 23 to 24th, especially in Oporto and Braga, where the sardines, Caldo Verde (traditional soup) and plastic hammers to hammer in other person's head for luck are indispensable. The final Saint is Saint Peter, celebrated in the night of 28 to 29th, especially in Póvoa de Varzim and Barcelos, festivities is similar to the others, but more dedicated to the sea and extensive use of fire (fogueiras). In Póvoa de Varzim, there is the Rusgas in the night, another sort of street carnival. Each festivity is a municipal holiday in the cities and towns where it occurs.

Music and dances

Fado (destiny in Portuguese) is a form of melancholic music. The music is linked to the Portuguese word saudade (there is no translation into English; it's a word for the mix feeling of sadness, pain, miss and love), and its origins are probably with a mixture of African slave rhythms with traditional music of Portuguese sailors. There are two varieties of Fado: Lisbon and Coimbra. The Lisbon style is the traditional (for the people), while the Coimbra's is the refined style (linked with universitary students); both are seen as ethnic music for sophisticated audience and as candidates for UNESCO World Heritage. The notable Amália Rodrigues introduced the most well-known variety of fado. After her disappearance, a new wave of performers added stylistic changes and brought more international popularity to the traditional Portuguese music. Mísia and Mariza, brought with them a new look to the traditional song, while Dulce Pontes mixed it with popular Portuguese music and Madredeus, made a complete revolution, with new instruments -- all that they kept from the original Fado is its looks and the concept of "saudade". Not all varieties of Fado are sorrowful; some can be joyful songs. Morna (or Cape Verdian Fado), in which Cesária Évora sings, is a variety of Fado originated from the Portuguese Fado. It also keeps the concept of "saudade", but it is song in Portuguese Creole.

Other genres include a local version of hip hop, influenced by the American style by descendants of immigrants from former Portuguese colonies in Africa. Hip hop tuga (Portuguese hip hop) is very popular among the younger population in Portugal. Cool Hipnoise, Da Weasel and Mind da Gap are some of the most popular and are becoming internationally known. Other musicians include the globally recognized pianist Maria João Pires.

As for dancing, Portugal has the traditional folklore (Ranchos Folclóricos), with many varieties from each region. Portugal with Angola has a shared rhythm known as "Kuduro" (popular in both countries), a sort of 'hard samba' with fast movements and extreme sensuality and strong African rhythm, performed mainly by Angolans or Angolan descents. This mixture of Portuguese and Angolan influence has also created the Brazilian Samba (popular in Portugal) and the Angolan Kizomba(Angolan samba, less Popular in Portugal), which have softer movements.

see also: List of Portuguese people - Music of Portugal - Desenrascanço

Holidays

note: each municipality has its own holiday which is religious (normally Saint Anthony Day - June 13, Saint John Day - June 24 or Saint Peter Day - June 29). When the municipality does not have one, then Carnival (the district Holiday) is an obligatory holiday. But due to cultural factors, Carnival is treated has a normal holiday, attempts to elimate it cost the popularity of the former prime minister Cavaco Silva. Some critics proposed the Independence day June 24, 1128 as a national holiday.

Miscellaneous topics

• Communications in Portugal
• Transportation in Portugal
• Military of Portugal
• Foreign relations of Portugal
• List of Cities in Portugal

Notes

• [1] The use of the words Lusitania or Nação Lusa to mean Portugal and Lusitano to mean a Portuguese citizen is due to ancient tribes that lived in most of today’s territory of Portugal, whose land was conquered by the Romans, that by that created, in the area, the Roman Province of Lusitania.
• [2] The actual concept declaration of independence did not exist at the time. Nether the recognization, Portugal was recognized as a kingdom with its own king by Leon in 1143 and by the Pope in 1179. Such is compared to today's recognition of independence.
• [3] Portuguese is the official language of Portugal since 1296, replacing Classical Latin, official since independence. Portuguese does not descend from Classical Latin but rather from Vulgar Latin. In Portugal, the local Vulgar Latin was known as Vulgar Language before it was renamed Portuguese.
• [4] Mirandese language as an official recognition it is not an official language. It is spoken in the villages of the Municipality of Miranda do Douro, but it is being discovered that some other remote villages in neighbouring municipalities has dialects similar to this ancient language. Mirandese is not spoken in any town or city.

External links

• Portal do Governo - Main governmental portal
• Presidência da República - Official presidential site
• Assembleia da República - Official parliamentary site
• Welcome to Portugal - All about Portugal
• Portugal inSite - Portugal's official travel and tourism website
• Contemporary Portuguese Political History Research Centre - History and politics
• IPPAR - Monuments of Portugal
• Euro 2004 - Official Euro2004 site
• PortugalTravelGuide - Tourism and holidays
• Portugalia - Photos from Portugal
• Folclore de Portugal - Portuguese folklore
• world-wide press freedom index Rank 7 out of 139 countries (3 way tie)