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Pornography is the representation of the human body or human sexual behaviour with the goal of sexual
arousal, similar to, but (according to some) distinct from, Erotica.
Introduction
Pornography may use any of a variety of media — written and spoken text, photos,
drawings, moving images (including animation), and sound such as heavy breathing.
Pornographic films combine moving images, spoken erotic text and/or other erotic sounds, while magazines
often combine photos and written text. And novels and short stories provide written text, sometimes with illustrations. In addition to media, a live performance
may be called pornographic.
In its original meaning, pornography was literally "writing about prostitutes." It evolved into writing about anything sexual, especially in a base manner, when the creation,
presentation, or consumption of the material was for sexual stimulation. The term now refers to sexually related material of all
kinds, both written and graphical. The term "pornography" often has negative connotations of low artistic merit, as compared to
the more esteemed erotica. Euphemisms
such as adult film, adult video and adult bookstore are generally preferred
within the industry producing these works (namely the adult industry). Pornography can also be contrasted with
ribaldry, which uses sexual titillation in the service of comedy.
Sometimes a distinction is made between softcore pornography and hardcore pornography. The
former generally refers to materials which feature nudity and some sexually suggestive
scenes, while hard-core or X-rated pornography contains close-ups of genitalia and sexual
activities.
It is sometimes argued that the display of urination or defecation contributes to the conclusion that an image is pornography (see e.g. Arizona
Criminal Code [1] , 9f, 11), in combination with [2] ,
A2, and for Utah [3] , 8h).
Legal situation
The legal status of pornography varies widely. While child
pornography is illegal almost everywhere, most countries allow at least some form of pornography. Soft core pornography is
usually tame enough to be sold in general stores and (in some countries) to be shown on TV.
Most countries attempt to restrict minors' access to hard core materials, so that it is only available in adult bookstores,
via mail-order, in some countries over special satellite TV channels, and sometimes in gas stations. Many of these efforts have
been rendered moot by the wide availability of internet
pornography. Most western countries have some restrictions on pornography involving violence or animals.
There are recurring urban legends of snuff movies, in which murders are filmed for pornographic purposes.
Extensive work by law enforcement officials to ascertain the truth of these rumours have been unable to find any such works.
- In 1966 in Denmark, the ban on written pornography was lifted and in 1969,
Denmark was the first country in the world to legalise (hard core) picture pornography.
- The Netherlands have the most liberal rules: pornography is sold
openly at normal newsstands and material involving animals is legal.
- In Sweden material involving animals is de-facto legal but subject to
animal-welfare laws. Porn movies can be viewed beginning at age 15, and there are no age restrictions for magazines.
- In the United States, hard core pornography is legal unless it meets
the Miller test of obscenity,
which it almost never does. The materials may not be made available to persons under 18 years of age. Some attempts at
restricting pornography on the internet have been struck down by the courts; see
internet pornography.
- In France, movies containing extreme violence or graphical pornography are
considered X rated, may not be seen by minors
and are shown only in specific theaters. Pornographic services incur special taxes on revenue (33% for X rated movies, 50% for
pornographic online services). Whether or not some movies should be X rated is controversial; for instance, in 2000, the explicitly violent and sexual movie Baise-moi was initially not considered X
rated (only "restricted") by the French government, but this classification was overturned by the Conseil d'État ruling on a lawsuit brought by associations supporting
Christian and family
values.
- Hard pornography remains illegal (but tolerated) in Norway.
- In Japan until the mid-1990s, no genitals could be shown, but there is no taboo
regarding sex and violence and also much less general concern about portraying teenagers as sexual beings (this applies to both out-and-out pornography and works dealing with other themes).
Until recently, Japanese law prohibited the depiction of pubic hair in
depictions of any forms of nudity, whether it be pornographic or not. For example,
Japanese editions of men's magazines such as Playboy had to have any photographs visible signs of pubic
hair airbrushed out. This prohibition may explain some visual characteristics of
many manga or anime where pubic hair is absent
from nude pictures.
- In Singapore pornography is illegal; even Playboy is banned.
- In the Russian Federation illegal production and
distribution of pornography is explicitly prohibited, but because State Duma has repeatedly failed to pass a law regulating
sexual materials, these issues remain in a grey area. De jure all pornography is allowed (including child porn), but
de facto there are some limitations on where it can be sold and bestiality and child porn are de facto prohibited.
Openly sold erotic magazines usually do not display nipples and pubic area on covers.
Anti-pornography movement
Criticisms of pornography come from two directions: conservative and religious forces, and feminism. Religious conservatives, exemplified by US Rev. Jerry Falwell,
decry pornography because they see it as immoral; sex is reserved for married couples, and pornography is thought to lead to an
overall increase in what they consider to be immoral behavior in society.
In the United States, a 1968 Supreme Court decision which held that
people could view whatever they wished in the privacy of their own homes caused Congress to fund and President Lyndon Johnson to appoint a commission to study pornography. The commission's
report recommended sex education, funding of research into the effects of pornography, restriction of children's access to
pornography, and recommended against any restrictions for adults. The report was widely criticized and rejected by Congress.
In 1983, prosecutors in California tried to use pandering and prostitution state statutes against a producer of and actors in a pornographic movie; the California Supreme Court ruled in 1988 that these statutes
do not apply to the production of pornography (People v. Freeman (1988) 46 Cal.3d 41
).
- "Evidence of the harm of exposure to sexually explicit images or words in childhood is inconclusive, even nonexistent.
The 1970 U.S. Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, the 'Lockhart' commission, uncovered
no link between adult exposure to pornography and bad behavior and called for the dismantling of legal restrictions on Erotica." - Judith Levine, Harmful to Minors
In 1985, President Ronald Reagan
appointed another commission to study pornography issues, specifically to overturn the findings of the Lockhart commission. It
was headed by Attorney General Edwin Meese and is generally known as the
Meese commission. The commission's report, released in 1986, found that pornography is harmful and can lead to violent
acts. This report has been criticised for allegedly producing results that were politically expedient rather than reflecting the
empirical evidence.
The feminist position on pornography is divided. Sex-positive feminists view pornography as a crucial part of the sexual revolution which led to women's liberation, and see conservative views of morality as
designed to fortify an oppressive status quo. Other feminists, most vocally Andrea Dworkin and Catharine MacKinnon,
see pornography as degradation of women which leads to violence against women. They have attempted to create laws which allow
sexually abused and otherwise affected women to sue pornographers in civil court. One such attempt in Indianapolis was struck down by the US Supreme Court in 1986. In a 1992 decision,
the Canadian Supreme Court upheld the Canadian obscenity law, accepting the feminist argument that the law is intended to create
gender equality and prohibits materials that harm women, rather than "immoral" materials. Dworkin herself favors a civil law
approach and opposes all criminal pornography prohibitions.
The criticisms of Linda Boreman, who herself worked as a porn actor
under the name Linda Lovelace, focus on the exploitative practices of the porn industry, rather than on pornography's societal
effects.
Is there a link between pornography and sex crimes?
It has long been theorized that there may be a link between pornography, particularly violent pornography, and an increase in
sex crime. This theory has relatively little empirical support and indeed Japan, which is
noted for violent pornography, has the lowest reported sex crime rate in the industrialized world, which has led some researchers to speculate that an opposite relationship may in
fact exist, namely, that wide availability of pornography may reduce crimes by giving potential offenders a socially accepted way
of regulating their own sexuality.
Study: Japanese pornography and sex crimes
Milton Diamond and Ayako Uchiyama write in "Pornography, Rape and
Sex Crimes in Japan" (International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 22(1): 1-22. 1999) [4] :
- Our findings regarding sex crimes, murder and assault are in keeping with what is also known about general crime rates in
Japan regarding burglary, theft and such. Japan has the lowest number of reported rape cases and the highest percentage of
arrests and convictions in reported cases of any developed nation. Indeed Japan is known as one of the safest developed countries
for women in the world (Clifford, 1980). (...)
- Despite the absence of evidence, the myth persists that an abundance of sexual explicit material invariably leads to an
abundance of sexual activity and eventually rape (e.g., Liebert, Neale, & Davison, 1973). Indeed, the data we report and
review suggests the opposite. Christensen (1990) argues that to prove that available pornography leads to sex crimes one must at
least find a positive temporal correlation between the two. The absence of any positive correlation in our findings, and from
results elsewhere, between an increase in available pornography and the incidence of rape or other sex crime, is prima facie
evidence that no link exists. But objectivity requires that an additional question be asked: "Does pornography use and
availability prevent or reduce sex crime?" Both questions lead to hypotheses that have, over prolonged periods, been tested in
Denmark, Sweden, West Germany and now in Japan. Indeed it appears from our data from Japan, as it was evident to Kutchinsky
(1994), from research in Europe and Scandinavia, that a large increase in available sexually explicit materials, over many years,
has not been correlated with an increase in rape or other sexual crimes. Instead, in Japan a marked decrease in sexual crimes has
occurred.
That hypothesis is challenged by a recent increase in sex crimes in Japan which, however, parallels an increase in all crimes.
Also, there have been substantial movements to support victims of rape through laws and public educations. Nevertheless, some in
Japan have blamed the increase on violent pornography and indeed, some sex offenders report having been inspired by themes in
commonly available pornography. The counter argument is, of course, that some sex offenders will likely use any defense they can
to lower their culpability.
History
Pornography has possibly a very long history. Nude human beings and sexual activities are depicted in some paleolithic art (i.e. Venus Figurines). However it is not certain that the purpose
was sexual arousal, the images may have had instead a spiritual significance. There are numerous pornographic paintings on the
walls of ruined Roman buildings in Pompeii. One notable example is a brothel in which the various sexual services are advertised in murals above each
door. In Pompeii you can also see phalluses (an erect penis and testicles) engraved in the sidewalks, pointing the way to the
prostitution and entertainment district, to aid visitors in finding their
way (see Erotic art in Pompeii).
Pornographic comic books known as Tijuana bibles began appearing in
the US in the 1920s.
In the second half of the 20th century, pornography became available in
"men's magazines" such as Playboy. These magazines usually featured nude or semi-nude
women, sometimes engaging in the act of masturbation. Other magazines
evolved into more explicit displays, featuring sexual penetration, lesbianism
and homosexuality, group
sex, and fetishes.
The movie camera has been used for pornography throughout its history, and with the arrival of the home video cassette recorder the pornographic movie industry grew
massively, people being able not only to view pornography in the privacy of their own home without having to go out to a theater,
but also to make their own pornography.
Pornographic computer games have also existed almost since the start
of the industry - some of the earliest were Mystique's Atari 2600 video games,
including Custer's Revenge, Beat 'Em And Eat 'Em
and Gigolo. The Japanese company Hacker International,
which also published games under the name Super PIG, produced several pornographic titles for the Nintendo Famicom - three of these, renamed to Bubble Bath Babes, Hot Slots and Peek-A-Boo Poker, were
distributed in the USA by Panesian.
However, such games are no longer produced for current consoles, largely due to the increased costs and potential legal problems
associated with developing a game without the approval of the console manufacturer - most pornographic titles are now released
only for home computers and are most often simple puzzle games or Japanese hentai
adventure games.
With the arrival of the Internet, the availability of pornography increased
greatly. Many of the most successful internet entrepreneurs are those who operate pornographic internet sites. As well as
conventional photographic or video pornography, some sites offer "interactive" video-game-like entertainment. Due to the international character of the Internet, it provides an easy means for
consumers of pornography that is illegal in their country to simply acquire such material from sources in another country where
it is legal or not prosecuted. See internet
pornography.
The almost-zero cost of copying and shipping of digital data boosted the formation of private circles of people swapping
pornography. In leet speak, it is usually referred to as
pr0n.
This type of exchange is especially popular for material that is illegal, most notably child pornography.
With the advent of peer to peer file sharing applications such as Kazaa, pornography swapping has reached new heights. Free
pornography is available on mass from other users and is no longer restricted to private groups.
Pornographic conventions
Pornographic work contains a number of conventions. Although pornography targeted at heterosexual males often includes
interaction between females, interaction between males is taboo. In hardcore materials, a male generally ejaculates outside his
partner's body, in full view. Penises are almost always shown fully erect. Women tend to be unrealistically vocal and loud during
hardcore scenes.
In the cheaper magazines the copy accompanying the text is often
derogatory to the female subjects: references to sluts, slags and whores abound.
Pornography around the globe
The production and distribution of pornography are economic activities of some importance. The exact size of the economy of
pornography and the influence that it plays in political circles are matter of controversy.
Pornography in the United States
Main article: Pornography in the
United States
A few large companies operating out of Southern
California's San Fernando Valley are responsible for much of the pornography produced in the United States. The distribution of pornography has changed radically after the 1980s with videotape and cable television largely displacing X-rated theaters. Video distribution in turn is in the process
of being replaced by DVD (and Internet distribution for niche markets). Distribution of pornography is a large industry which involves
major entertainment companies such as Time Warner (which profits from
pornography through its cable channels, and in-room movies provided by hotel chains).
Mainstream pornography in the United States tends to feature mostly women in
high heels with hair dyed blonde, heavy makeup, large breasts and buttocks, a dark
suntan (with visible tan lines, ie a change in skin coloration where underwear or a bathing suit was worn whilst
tanning) and often with small tattoos or body piercings. Men in heterosexual pornography tend to be older and heavily muscled, whereas men in gay
pornography are on average younger. American pornography movies often attempt to promote pornographic stars, and the boxes for
video tapes tend to be extremely gaudy. Plot in pornographic
movies is often minimal.
Pornography in Europe
European hardcore pornography is dominated by a few pan-European producers and
distributors, the most notable of which is the Private organization. Most European countries also have local pornography
producers. Both of these compete with imported American pornography. Hungary is a
haven for European pornography producers with an ample supply of beautiful and young female performers and liberal pornography
laws. Women in European pornography typically have a so-called "more natural" look than in American pornography, with less
emphasis on breast implants. The once very flourishing currents of
Euro-chic and stylish pornography represented by directors such as Lasse
Braun, Joe d'Amato, Jean Rollin have lost much ground and Pierre Woodman
style video shoots attract more audience. Few directors like Luca Damiano
and Alain Payet resist to keep on with the cinematographic and dramatic
aspects, which distinguish European pornography from others.
In the UK, British-made pornography tends to focus on a rough-and-ready semi-amateur look
rather than the more stylized look of mainland European pornography. Producers such as Ben Dover concentrate on producing "girl-next-door" or "candid" material. Some British pornography concentrates
on sexual fetishism, particularly spanking and rubber fetishism.
Pornography in Asia
The three main producers of pornography in Asia are Japan, Hong Kong, and Thailand. Japan has a large pornography industry (see Pornography in Japan) which features more natural looking women usually wearing little makeup
servicing multiple men who tend to be anonymous. In Japan, fetish pornography has a
great variety, ranging from well-known bukkake to tamakeri. Hong Kong and Thailand produces much print pornography but less video. The men in Thai pornography tend
to be younger than in Japanese or American pornography.
Pornography in Turkey
In the Islamic World, production of pornography seems to be limited
due to social pressure rather than legal regulations. Turkey, with its deeply-rooted
secular attitudes towards Islam, is an exception. After a long period of producing
Italian-inspired softcore comedies in 1970s, the first hardcore film Öyle Bir Kadin Ki (She is Such a Woman) was legally
distributed in 1979, followed by many more until the 1980 coup d'état,
which strictly prohibited graphic sex in cinema. In the late 1990s, Turkish pornography lived a relatively humble revival,
producing material of much lower quality. Contemporary producers of Turkish porn (e.g. Trimax) are centred in Germany, although they still recruit their performers from Turkey.
Magazines
- Playboy (originally only in US, nowadays has editions in many countries)
- Penthouse
- Hustler Magazine (originally only in US, nowadays has editions
in many countries)
- Private (Established in Stockholm, Sweden in 1965 as the world's first full color hardcore sex
magazine)
- Le Ore (Italy), once an ordinary newspaper, in the 1970s had a notable turn in editorial line and represents now the most
important title of a wide network of sex related magazines in central Europe.
- Playgirl
see also: List of men's magazines
Publishers
Studios
- Color
Climax Corporation (Denmark)
- Falcon Studios
- Titan Media
- Vivid Video
- VCA Pictures
Erotic authors
See also the main list at List of erotic
authors
Famous pornographic movies
Personalities
Specialized forms of pornography
See also
External links and references
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