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Asking what is Philosophy is itself a philosophical activity, though philosophers will more often
use such specific questions as a starting point:
- What things are real? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the
nature of space and time? What is the nature of thought and thinking? What is it to be a person? What is it to be conscious? Is
there a god? Questions of this type are traditionally labelled metaphysical
in the West.
- Is knowledge possible? How do we come to know what we know? How can we know that there are other minds? Questions of this
type are traditionally labelled epistemological in the West.
- Is there a difference between morally right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference?
Which actions are right, and which wrong? Are values absolute, or relative? In general or particular terms, how should I live?
Questions of this type are traditionally labelled ethical in the West.
The labels mentioned are a legacy of Ancient Greek philosophy.
Eastern philosophy and recent continental philosophy usually approach philosophy differently,
and rarely use such labels, though they may address the same questions.
Philosophy is paradigmatically concerned with concepts such as existence or being, morality or goodness, knowledge, truth, and
beauty; historically most philosophy has also centred on religious beliefs. Philosophers are often particularly concerned with
asking critical questions about the nature of these concepts, questions typically outside the scope of science, and several major
works of post-medieval philosophy begin by asking what philosophy itself should or does mean.
Philosophy: Motives, Goals and Methods
The word "philosophy" is derived from the ancient Greek philosophia which roughly means "love of wisdom". It suggests
a vocation for questioning, learning, and spreading knowledge. Many philosophers are curious about the world, humanity,
existence, values, understanding, and the nature of things.
Some authorities distinguish philosophy by its methods of inquiry. Many philosophers frame their questions as problems or
puzzles, in order to give clear examples of their doubts about a subject they find interesting, wonderful, or confusing. Often
these questions are about the assumptions behind a belief, or about methods by which people reason.
Philosophers then attempt to answer these doubts. Many philosophers frame problems in a logical manner, using syllogisms, and then work towards a solution
based on critical reading and reasoning. Others, like Socrates, search for answers through discussions, or by responding to the
arguments of others. Still other philosophers put more emphasis on the practice of careful personal contemplation. Philosophers
also debate these methods, asking whether "solving" a philosophical problem is like answering a question in the natural sciences:
whether or not, for example, philosophical "solutions" are objective, definitive, and say something informative about reality; or
rather whether these solutions just give more clarity or insight on the logic of our language, or even act as personal
therapy.
Most philosophers prefer that philosophical answers follow from justifications. Philosophers rarely accept a philosophical
belief without asking for justification.
In the recent Analytic tradition, debates about
philosophical method have been closely connected to debates about the relationship between philosophy and natural science, and
arguments over whether philosophy makes (or can make)
progress in the same ways as the natural sciences. There is an entire field of philosophy—called meta-philosophy, the "philosophy of philosophy"—the subject of which is
the nature of philosophical problems, philosophical solutions, and the proper method for getting from one to another (cf.
Pataphysics). These debates may also be connected to debates over language
and interpretation, as in Continental philosophy.
These debates are not less relevant to philosophy as a whole, since the nature and role of philosophy itself has
always been an essential part of philosophical deliberations. On the contrary, the existence of fields like Pataphysics,
indicates a lengthy debate beyond the scope of this article. Such questions are discussed at more length elsewhere.
Non-academic uses of the word
Popularly, the word philosophy is often used to mean any form of assimilated knowledge, or any person's perspective
on life (as in "philosophy of life") or basic principles behind or method of achieving something (as in "my philosophy about
driving on highways"). This is also commonly referred to as a worldview.
To take another example, reacting to a tragedy "philosophically" might mean abstaining from passionate reactions in favor of
intellectualized detachment. That particular definition arose from the example of Socrates, who calmly discussed the nature of the soul with his followers while the hemlock (used to execute him in
accord with the decision of an Athenian jury) took effect. But the use of philosophically in this adverbial sense is
only a distant relation of the contemporary academic usage.
This article focuses specifically on philosophy as an academic function rather than these usages, though there is some overlap
with the former definition.
Western and non-Western Philosophical traditions
Members of many societies around the world have considered the same questions, and built philosophic traditions based upon
each other's works. Philosophy may be broadly divided into various realms based loosely on geography.
The term "philosophy" alone in a Euro-American academic context can misleadingly
refer solely to the philosophic traditions of Western
civilization, sometimes also called Western philosophy.
Additionally, Western applications of the term over the past century also frequently reveal a bias towards either Continental
Philosophy or Analytic philosophy. In the West, the term "Eastern
philosophy" broadly subsumes the philosophic traditions of Asia or other areas
considered "Eastern". This conventional bifurcation is problematic. Russian, Jewish or Islamic philosophical traditions that have
contributed to, or been derivative of Western philosophy, yet retain a unique identity, are either subsumed under the latter and
given scant attention, or ignored. Other philosophical traditions, such as in Africa, are rarely considered in foreign
academia.
For numerous political and other reasons, non-Western traditions of philosophy sooner or later fell into decline, and emphasis
on Western philosophy, consistent with the strong international presence of Anglo-American popular culture, is a dominant trend
around the globe. The study, preservation and dissemination of valuable non-Western philosophical works faces many more obstacles
in the future than Western philosophy.
Western Philosophy
The Western philosophic tradition began with the Greeks and
continues to the present day. Famous Western philosophers include Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, René Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, G.W.F. Hegel, Arthur
Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Gottlob Frege, Bertrand
Russell, Henri Bergson, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jean-Paul Sartre,
Theodor Adorno, Jacques Derrida and Willard van Orman Quine. For more
information, see Western Philosophy.
Eastern Philosophy
Eastern philosophy follows the broad traditions that originated from or were popular within ancient India and China. Famous
Eastern philosophers include Gautama Buddha, Nagarjuna, Confucius, Lao Zi (Lao Tzu), Zhuang Zi (Chuang Tzu), Mencius, Xun Zi, Zhu Xi,
Sankara , Ramana
Maharshi, and Ramanuja. For more
information on Eastern philosophies, see Eastern
philosophy.
Other philosophical traditions are linked below.
Applied philosophy
Though often seen as a wholly abstract field, philosophy is not without practical applications. The most obvious applications
are those in ethics -- applied
ethics in particular -- and in political philosophy.
The political philosophies of Confucius, Sun Tzu, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, and John
Rawls have shaped and been used to justify governments and their actions.
Philosophy of education deserves special mention,
as well; progressive education as championed by John Dewey has had a profound
impact on educational practices in the United States in the twentieth
century. It could be argued that some New Age philosophies, such as the "Celestine Prophecy",
inadvertantly educate people about human psychology and power relationships through the use of spiritual metaphor.
Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which might
help one to regulate one's notions of what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are. Two useful ways that epistemology and
logic can inform the real world are through the fields of journalism and police investigation. Informal
logic has fantastic applications, helping citizens to be critical in reading rhetoric and in everyday discussion. Philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings of the scientific method. Aesthetics can help to interpret
discussions of art. Even ontology, surely the
most abstract and least practical-seeming branch of philosophy, has had important consequences for logic and computer science.
In general, the various "philosophies of," such as philosophy of
law, can provide workers in their respective fields with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual
underpinnings of their fields.
Moreover, a burgeoning profession devoted to applying philosophy to the problems of ordinary life has recently developed,
called philosophical counseling. Moreover, many
Eastern philosophies can and do inadvertantly help millions of people with anxiety problems through their emphasis on meditation,
calm, and the connection between the health of the body and the health of the soul.
Some tentative generalizations about what philosophy is
Although Greek philosophy once included the sciences, contemporary philosophy does not make use of consistent, systematic
experimentation and observation, though it may interpret philosophical aspects of the same. One might say philosophy is a
discipline that critically examines fundamental, abstract beliefs and values, according to a loose set of general methods. By
"fundamental, abstract beliefs and values" one generally refers to universal traits such as existence, or to common and
long-standing perspectives which large sections of society have applied in daily life, whether to specific fields like economics,
or the more general one of merely living.
Of course, physics and other sciences also study universal aspects of things; but they do so through consistent, systematic
experimentation. Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without such an apparatus, aspects that may initially seem
too general or abstract to merit attention. For instance, philosophers may ask what makes the "objectness" of an object,
as distinguished from the constitution of objects, their properties and relations to other objects, and perhaps also as
distinguished from minds or souls, and attempt to answer their own questions without making use of any prior scientific
knowledge; physicists, on the other hand, would proceed with or dismiss such a question by resorting to an agreed, consistent and
verifiable approach and notion of objects.
How to get started in philosophy
It is a common platitude that "everybody has a philosophy, though they might not all realize it or be able to defend it". Yet
"philosophy" as it is frequently used by notable philosophers is nothing like what is meant by people who say "here's my
philosophy of life..." The distinction between popular and academic opinion is a starting point for many.
If you're already interested in studying philosophy, your reason might be to improve the way you live or think somehow, or you
simply wish to get acquainted with one of the most ancient areas of human thought. On the other hand, if you don't see what all
the fuss is about, it might help to read the motivation to philosophize, which explains what motivates many people to "do
philosophy," and get an introduction
to philosophical method, which is important to understanding how philosophers think. It might also help to acquaint yourself
with some considerations about just what philosophy
is.
Those who are new to the study of philosophy are advised to look at the articles on logic, metaphysics, philosophy of mind, philosophy of
language, epistemology, philosophy of science, ethics, and political philosophy as the individual treatment of these subjects
are commonly used as an introduction in Western academia. Alternately one may simply study the works of major philosophers from
various periods and places with the help of several guides and discussion.
People who are inclined to study philosophy with others may wish to seek out organizations such as the non-profit Society for Philosophical Inquiry.
See also
Quotations
"Believe nothing, O monks, merely because you have been told it … or because it is traditional, or because you
yourselves have imagined it. Do not believe what your teacher tells you merely out of respect for the teacher. But whatsoever,
after due examination and analysis, you find to be conducive to the good, the benefit, the welfare of all beings—that
doctrine believe and cling to, and take it as your guide. - Gautama
Buddha (attributed )
"Science is what we know and philosophy is what we don't know." - Bertrand Russell
"What is your aim in philosophy? To show the fly the way out of the fly-bottle." - Ludwig Wittgenstein
"Philosophy is the peculiarly stubborn attempt to think clearly." - William James
"Philosophy, n. A route of many roads leading from nowhere to nothing." - Ambrose Bierce
"The philosophers have only interpreted the world in different ways; the point, however, is to change it." - Karl Marx
External Links
Some of these websites contain links to online texts of philosophy, as do many related articles on Wikipedia.
Bibliography
Books and journals suitable for beginners
- Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction by Edward Craig
- A Short History of Modern Philosophy by Roger Scruton
- Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy by Robert C. Solomon
- Philosophy Now magazine
- World Philosophies by Ninian Smart
- Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction by Sue Hamilton
- A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy by Oliver Leaman
- Eastern Philosophy For Beginners by Jim Powell, Joe Lee
- An Introduction to African Philosophy by Samuel Oluoch Imbo
- Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev by Frederick Copleston
- Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction by Simon Critchley
Reference works
- The Oxford Companion to Philosophy edited by Ted Honderich
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy by Robert Audi
- The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig,
Luciano Floridi (also available online by subscription); or
- The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)
- Routledge History of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon
- History of Philosophy (9 vols.) by Frederick Copleston
- Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al (first 6 volumes out of
print)
- Indian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Sarvapelli Radhakrishnan
- History of Chinese Philosophy (2 vols.) by Yu-lan Fung, Derk Bodde
- Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy edited by Antonio S. Cua
- Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt
Friedrichs
- Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam
- A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English by John A. Grimes
- History of Islamic Philosophy edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman
- History of Jewish Philosophy edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman
- A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin
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