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This article deals with the Roman emperor Nero, for other meanings see Nero (disambiguation)
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December 15,
37 AD - June 9, 68
AD). He was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus in Anzio. On February 25, 50 he became heir to the current
Roman Emperor as Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus. He
succeeded to the throne on October 13, 54. In
66 he added the prefix Imperator to his name.
In 68 Nero was deposed. His death on June 6, 68 was reportedly the result of suicide assisted by his
scribe Epaphroditos (Greek for "lovely" and
"charming").
Family
Nero was the fifth and last Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the younger, sister and reputed lover of Caligula. His father was grandson to an elder Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. He was also great-grandson to Marcus Antonius and Octavia through their daughter
Antonia Major. His mother was the namesake of her own mother Agrippina the elder who was granddaughter to Octavia's brother
Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia Caesaris and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. His maternal grandfather Germanicus was himself grandson to Tiberius Claudius
Nero and Livia, adoptive grandson to her second husband Caesar Augustus, nephew and adoptive son of Tiberius, son of Drusus through his wife
Antonia Minor (sister to Antonia Major) and brother to Claudius.
Birth under Caligula
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was born on December 15, 37. At the time he was not expected to ever become Augustus. His
maternal uncle Caligula had only started his own reign on March 16 of that year at
the age of 25. His predecessors Octavian and Tiberius had lived to become 76 and 79 respectively. Providing that Caligula lived
enough to match them, he could produce his own heirs.
Lucius would come to the attention of his uncle soon after his birth. Agripinna reportedly asked her brother to name the
child. This would be an act of favor and would mark the child as a possible heir to his uncle. However Caligula only offered to
name his nephew Claudius after their lame and stuttering uncle, apparently implying
that he was as unlikely to become Augustus as Claudius.
The relationship between brother and sister would soon apparently improve. A prominent scandal early in the new reign was
Caligula's particularly close relationship to his three sisters Drusilla, Julia Livilla and Agrippina. All three
are featured with their brother in Roman currency of the time. The
three women seem to have gained his favor and likely some amount of influence. The writings of Josephus, Suetonius, Dio Cassius report on their reputed sexual relationship with their brother,
considered typical by Egyptian and incest by
Roman standard. Drusilla's sudden death in 38 would apparently only serve to ensure this
belief. She was reportedly Caligula's favorite and was consequently buried with the honors of an Augusta. Caligula proceeded in
having her deified, the first woman in Roman history to achieve this honor.
Lucius had then become the son of an influential and notorious woman. But she would soon lose her position by her brother.
Caligula had remained childless. His closest male relatives at the time were his brother-in-laws Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (husband of Drusilla), Marcus Vinicius (husband of
Livilla) and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
(husband of Agrippina). Likely heirs in case Caligula died early. However Lepidus apparently lost his chances to succeed his
brother-in-law with the death of his wife. But not his ambitions to do so.
Conspiracies
In September, 39 Caligula left Rome with his escort, heading north to join his legions
in a campaign against the Germanic tribes. The campaign had to be
postponed for the following year due to Augustus' preoccupation with a conspiracy against him. Reportedly Lepidus had managed to become lover to both Agrippina and Livilla, apparently
seeking their help in gaining the throne. Lepidus was consequently immediately executed. Caligula also ordered the execution of
Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, the popular Legate of Germania Superior, and his replacement
with Servius Sulpicius Galba. However, it remains
uncertain whether he was connected to Lepidus' conspiracy. Agrippina and Livilla were soon exiled to the Pontian islands. Lucius was presumably separated from his mother at
this point.
Lucius' father died of dropsy in 40. Lucius was
now effectively an orphan with an uncertain fate under the increasingly erratic Caligula. His luck would change again the
following year. On January 24, 41 Caligula,
his wife Caesonia
Milonia, and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered by
a conspiracy under Cassius
Chaera. The Praetorian Guard guard helped Claudius gain the
throne. Among his first decisions was the recalling of his nieces from exile.
Agrippina was soon remarried to the wealthy Gaius Sallustius Passienus Crispus. He died between 44 and 47, and Agrippina was reportedly suspected of poisoning him in order to
inherit his fortune. Lucius was the only heir to his now wealthy mother.
Adoption by Claudius
Ten-year-old Lucius was still considered unlikely to ever gain the throne. Claudius, 57 years old at this point, had reigned
longer than his predecessor and arguably more effectively. Claudius had already had three marriages. He had married Plautia Urgulanilla and Aelia Paetina as a private citizen. He was married to Valeria
Messalina as an Augustus. They had two children, Britannicus (born
41) and Octavia (born 42). Messalina was still only 25 years old and likely to produce more heirs.
However, Messalina was executed in 48, accused of conspiring against her husband. The
ambitious Agrippina soon set her sights upon replacing her deceased aunt. On January
1, 49 she became the fourth wife of Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar Drusus.
The marriage would last for five years.
Early in year 50 the Roman Senate
offered Agrippina the honorific title of Augusta, previously only held by Livia (14 - 29). On February
25, 50 Lucius was officially adopted by Claudius as Nero Claudius Caesar
Drusus(see adoption in Rome). Nero was older than his
adoptive brother Britannicus and effectively became heir to the throne at the time of his adoption.
Claudius honored his adoptive son in several ways. Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the
age of 14. He was appointed proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate,
made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53 he married his
adoptive sister Octavia.
Becoming Augustus
Claudius died on October 13, 54 and Nero
was soon established as Augustus in his place. He was 17 years old, the youngest Emperor yet. Historians generally consider Nero
to have acted as a figurehead early in his reign. Actual decisions were likely to have been left at the more capable hands of his
mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and
the praefectus praetorianus Sextus Afranius
Burrus. The first five years under Nero became known as examples of fine administration, even resulting in coining the term
"Quinquennium Neronis".
The matters of the Empire were handled effectively and the Senate enjoyed a period of renewed influence in state affairs.
However problems would soon arise from Nero's personal life and the increasing competition for influence among Agrippina and the
two male advisors. Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage and tended to neglect Octavia. He soon entered an affair
with Acte, a former slave. Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and
demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Burrus and Seneca, on the other hand, chose to support their charge's decision.
Nero resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs. With her influence over her son declining, Agrippina
turned to a younger candidate for the throne. Fifteen-year-old Britannicus was still legally a minor under the charge of Nero but
was approaching legal adulthood. Britannicus was a likely heir to Nero and ensuring her influence over him could strengthen her
position. However the youth died suddenly on February 12, 55. His proclamation as an adult had been set for February 13.
The timing suggests poisoning. Burrus is suspected to have been involved in this murder. Agrippina's power soon further declined
while Burrus and Seneca jointly became the most influential men in Rome.
A Series of Scandals
While his advisors took care of affairs of state, Nero surrounded himself with a circle of favorites. Roman historians report
nights of drunken revelry and violence while more mundane matters of politics were neglected. Among his new favorites was
Marcus Salvius Otho. By all accounts Otho was as dissolute as
Nero but served as a good and intimate friend to him. Some sources even consider them to be lovers. Otho would soon introduce
Nero to a woman who would marry first the favorite and then the Emperor. Poppaea Sabina was described as a woman of great beauty, charm, and wit. Gossip of Nero, Otho, and Poppaea being parts of a love triangle can be found in many sources (Plutarch Galba 19.2-20.2; Suetonius Otho 3.1-2; Tacitus two versions: Histories 1.13.3-4; Annals 13.45-46; and Dio Cassius 61.11.2-4).
By 58, Poppaea had been established in her position as the favorite mistress of Nero. The following year (59) would mark a turning point in the reign of Nero. Nero and/or Poppaea reportedly machinated the murder of
Agrippina. Seneca attempted to convince the Senate that she was orchestrating a conspiracy against her son, but the reputation of
the Emperor was damaged beyond repair by this case of matricide. Otho was soon also removed from the imperial environment, and
sent to Lusitania as governor.
The next turning point would be the year 62, for several reasons.
The first of them would be a change of guard in his advisors. Burrus died and Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from
public affairs. Their replacement as praetorian praefect and counselor respectively was Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus . He had been exiled in 39 by Caligula on charges of
adultery with both Agrippina and Livilla. He had been recalled from exile by Claudius and had later managed to become a favorite
of Nero (and, reputedly, a lover). Along with Poppaea he was considered to hold greater influence with the Augustus than Seneca
ever could. In 62 Burrus died and Seneca retired; Nero remained without his counselors; a few
months later he married Poppaea. One theory suggests that Poppaea attempted, in those
four years (58-62), to separate Nero from his counselors and
friends; in this case, what happened to Burrus and Seneca could have been not casual.
The second significant event of the year was the divorce of the Emperor. Nero was
now twenty-five years old, had reigned for six years, and had yet to produce an heir. When Poppaea became pregnant, Nero finally
decided to marry his mistress, but his marriage to Octavia had to be dissolved before doing so. At first he resorted to accusing
her of adultery. However, Nero had already gained a reputation for this offence
while Octavia was reputed to be an example of virtue. Some testimony was needed against her, but torturing one of her slaves only
produced the famous declaration of Pythias reporting the genitalia of Octavia to be cleaner than the mouth of Tigellinus. Nero proceeded to declare the divorce on grounds of [[infertility], leaving him free to marry
Poppaea and wait for her to give birth. However, the "sudden" death of Octavia on June
9, 62 resulted in incidents of public protest.
One of the earliest effects of Tigellinus' advancement was the introduction of a series of treason laws; numerous capital
sentences were carried out. During the year Nero executed two of his few remaining relatives:
Disturbed Peace
Early in 63 Poppaea gave birth to a daughter: Claudia Augusta. Nero celebrated
the event but the child died four months later. Nero was still with no heir.
On the night July 18 to July 19,
64 the Great fire of Rome
erupted. The fire started in densely populated areas like the Suburra in which had been built the insulae, sort of modern
condominiums on 3 or 4 floors, made of wood. Nero was reportedly vacationing in his native Anzio but had to return in haste. The fire burned for a week. Rumour circulated that Nero had played his lyre and sang, on top of Quirinal Hill,
while the city burned. (Tacitus, Ann. XV; Suetonius, Nero XXXVIII; Dio Cassius, R.H. LXII). The same
accounts depict him opening his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless and arranging for food supplies to be delivered in
order to prevent starvation among the survivors. However Nero lost his chances at redeeming his reputation when he immediately
produced plans of rebuilding Rome in a monumental -- and less inflammable -- style.
The confused population was searching for scapegoats and soon rumors held Nero responsible. The motivation attributed to him was intending to immortalize his
name by renaming Rome to "Neropolis". Nero had to engage in scapegoating of
his own and chose for his target a small sect of reputed misanthropes called
Christians.
Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman historian, has
preserved a record of this affair. We quote the following from his Annals (XV.44):
"And so, to get rid of this rumor, Nero set up [i.e., falsely accused] as the culprits and punished with the utmost
refinement of cruelty a class hated for their abominations, who are commonly called Christians. Christus, from whom their name is derived, was executed at the hands of the procurator Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius. Checked for a moment, this pernicious superstition again broke out, not only in Judea, the source of the evil, but even in Rome.... Accordingly, arrest
was first made of those who confessed; then, on their evidence, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much on the charge of
arson as because of [their] hatred for the human race. Besides being put to
death they were made to serve as objects of amusement; they were clothed in the hides of beasts and torn to death by dogs; others
were crucified, others set on fire to serve to illuminate the night when daylight failed. Nero had thrown open his grounds for
the display, and was putting on a show in the circus, where he mingled with the people in the dress of charioteer or drove about
in his chariot. All this gave rise to a feeling of pity, even towards men whose guilt merited the most exemplary punishment; for
it was felt that they were being destroyed not for the public good but to gratify the cruelty of an individual."
Modern historians still debate the causes of the fire and those responsible for the fire. Nero and the Christians remain
popular suspects while others consider the fire to be an accidental disaster. In any case Nero was free to begin the process of
rebuilding Rome. His famous Domus Aurea was part of his rebuilding plan.
Nero the artist and the Widower
In 65 Nero was involved in another scandal, considered more serious by contemporary society
than it would be now. It was considered shameful for a Roman emperor to appear as a public entertainer, acting, singing and
playing his lyre.
Quite unanimously hated by citizens, with an increasing list of political enemies, Nero started to appreciate his loneliness
when in 65 he discovered the Pisonian conspiracy (named after Gaius Calpurnius Piso, who intended taking his place) and the involving of old friends like Seneca in
the plot. Conspirators were forced into suicide.
In addition, Nero ordered that Gnaeus Domitius
Corbulo, a popular and valuable general, commit suicide because of the mere suspicion of new threats. This decision moved
military commanders, locally and in the provinces, to start planning a revolution. Also at about this time, according to
tradition, Nero personally ordered the crucifixion of Saint Peter and, later, the beheading of Saint Paul.
In 66 Poppaea died, supposedly by the hand of Nero himself. The emperor left for Greece, in 67, where he amused his hosts with other artistic
performances, while in Rome Nymphidius (a colleague of Tigellinus, taking the place of one of the Pisonian conspirators) was collecting the
support of praetorians and senators.
Back in Rome after the tournée, Nero found quite a cold atmosphere; Gaius Iulius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis,
revolted, and this brought Nero to a paranoid hunt for eventual threats; in this state of mind he ordered the elimination of any
patrician with suspect ideas. His (once) faithful servant Galba, governor of Iberia (Spain), was one of those dangerous nobles, so he ordered his death. Galba, lacking an alternative choice, declared
his loyalty to the Roman Senate and People (SPQR), no longer recognising Nero's power.
Moreover, he started organising his own campaign for the empire.
As a result, Lucius Clodius Macer, legate of the
legion III Augusta in
Africa, revolted and stopped sending grain to Rome. Nymphidius corrupted the imperial guard, which turned against Nero on the
promise of financial reward by Galba.
The Senate deposed Nero, who committed suicide on June 9, 68. It is said that he
uttered this last words before killing himself: "Alas, I feel an artist is dying in me." With his death, the Julio-Claudian
Dynasty came to an end.
See also:
- Rome, Roman Empire, Roman Emperors, Julio-Claudian Family Tree, Number of the Beast (numerology)
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