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Homosexuality, a sexual orientation
characterized by sexual desire or romantic love exclusively or almost exclusively for members of the same gender, is also known as being "gay"; gay females are also known as "lesbians" (cf. heterosexuality,
bisexuality).
The term homosexuality is also occasionally applied to sexual
activity between members of the same sex (see Definitions of homosexuality and homosexual).
Etymology and usage
The term homosexuality was coined in 1869 by Karl Maria Kertbeny in an anonymous pamphlet advocating the repeal of
Prussia's sodomy laws (Bullough et.
al. ed. (1996)). It was listed in 1886 in Richard von Krafft-Ebing's study on deviant sexual practices entitled Psychopathia Sexualis. The word homosexual
translates literally as "of the same sex," being a hybrid of the Greek prefix meaning "same" and the Latin root meaning "gender."
Although some early writers used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-gender context (such as the Roman
Catholic clergy or an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect. The term homosocial is used for single-sex
contexts that are not specifically sexual. The older synonym for homosexuality, homophilia, has fallen into disuse.
Western people who regard themselves as having a same-gender sexual orientation tend to prefer the terms gay and lesbian; the latter term (noun or adjective) refers
specifically to women. The term gay can apply to both men and women, but it is often used only for males (hence the
expression gays and lesbians or the more precise gay men and lesbians) and its inclusive use is common but not
standard. Other terms include same-gender loving, and same-sex oriented. Less frequently, the terms queer, homo, and fag or
faggot are used positively among gay men and lesbians, but are generally considered
derogatory otherwise.
The term homosexual can be used as a noun or adjective to describe same-sex oriented persons as well as their sexual
attraction and behavior. However, some advocates insist that the terms homosexual and homosexuality be avoided
lest their use cause confusion or arouse controversy. Some people also regard the description of individuals as
homosexual to be offensive, or at least inaccurate, partially because of the negative clinical association from its use
in describing same-sex attraction as a pathological state before homosexuality was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's list of mental disorders in 1973. Likewise, the
use of homosexuality to describe sexual behavior between
people of the same sex can be seen as insulting. Same-sex oriented people seldom apply these terms to themselves, and public
officials and agencies often avoid them. For instance, the Safe Schools Coalition of Washington's Glossary for school
employees advises that gay is the "preferred synonym for homosexual," and goes on to advise avoiding the term
homosexual as it is "clinical, distancing and archaic":
- "Sometimes appropriate in referring to behavior (although same-sex is the preferred adjective). When referring to people,
as opposed to behavior, homosexual is considered derogatory and the terms gay and lesbian are preferred, at least in the
Northwest".
The Guardian Style Guide, Newswatch Diversity Style Guide, and the Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concern of
the American Psychological Association's Avoiding Heterosexual Bias in Language all agree that "gay" is the preferred
term.
Which terms are acceptable and which are offensive varies widely with location and culture, and the connotations of the words
gay and lesbian are also culturally dependent. For instance, among some sectors of African-American gay
sub-culture, same-sex sexual behavior is sometimes viewed as solely for physical pleasure. Men on the down-low
(DL) may engage in regular (although often covert) sex acts with other men while continuing sexual and romantic
relationships with women who are uninformed. These men often regard gay as a term that applies to stereotypically
flamboyant and effeminate men of European ancestry, a group from which some may
wish to distance themselves. (Some experts have suggested that this DL subculture may have come about because of
stronger stigmas against same-sex behavior in African-American communities, and greater dependence on possibly homophobic family networks for support.)
Other communities have created their own terms or have adapted English terms for their own purposes. In Japan, for example,
use of the word "gay" is fairly recent. In recent history the more descriptive dōseiaisha
(同性愛者, literally same-sex-loving person) was the only term available. Prior to that a variety of
obscure historical terms largely influenced by classical Chinese
literature were employed. More recently the contraction "homo" was used; somewhat confusingly this term was used both
positively and pejoratively. Nowadays the terms gei (ゲイ, a transliteration of gay) and
bian or
rezubian (ビアン、レズビアン, transliterations of
lesbian) are the most common in the gay community, while pejorative terms like okama (a word of obscure origin
literally meaning a cooking pot) are sometimes used by non-gays.
Incidence and prevalence of homosexuality
Estimates of the prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably with the definition of what "homosexuality" actually is. Some
consider its most important aspect to be sexual behavior
between members of the same sex ("homosexual acts"), while others stress inclination or orientation. Three
primary definitions are same-sex sexual activity, same-sex sexual inclination, and same-sex sexual identity. These may be further
divided.
For example, same-sex sexual behavior may occur among people who do not identify themselves as "homosexual" (see gay sex and MSM). This is common in macho cultures which distinguish between the "active" and the "passive" sexual partner, where the "active"
partner does not usually consider himself to be homosexual.
Conversely, persons who identify as same-sex loving are not always sexually active, whether due to necessity, circumstances,
or personal choice. Similarly, a person may have same-sex sexual thoughts or inclinations without ever acting on them or
regarding themselves as having a same-sex sexual orientation. All of these might fall under the umbrella of "homosexuality", and
may or may not be included in research surveys. A survey that counts only same-sex sexual contact, for example, will exclude all
celibate homosexuals.
Another significant distinction can be made between what medical statisticians call incidence and prevalence. For example, even if two studies
agree on a common criterion for considering someone to be homosexual, one study might regard this as applying to any person who
has ever met this criterion, whereas another might only regard them as being so if they had done so during the year of the
survey.
As a result of these fundamental problems, the results and conclusions of studies on homosexuality are invariably challenged.
Indeed, unclear definitions, social stigmas, and political influences make it essentially impossible to accurately determine the
number of "homosexuals" in a given society. In general, most research agrees that the number of people who have had multiple
same-gender sexual experiences is fewer than the number of people who have had a single such experience, and that the number of
people who identify themselves as exclusively homosexual is fewer than the number of people who have had multiple homosexual
experiences.
At one extreme, the Kinsey report (1948) reported that 37% of men in
the U.S. had achieved orgasm through contact with another male after adolescence.
However, Kinsey's work was based on a population sample that was likely to have been biased and consequently his results have
been disputed. Since Kinsey, a number of large-scale cross-cultural studies, involving tens of thousands of subjects selected at
random, have consistently reported a percentage lower than Kinsey's estimate. For example,
- Smith's 1991 analysis of National Opinion Research Center data [1]
states that 5.9% of sexually active males
had had a male sexual partner since age 18, but that "since age 18 less than 1% are gay and 4+% bisexual".
- A 1998 survey by Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay gave a figure of 15.3% of men who "reported being homosexual to some
degree" including "overlapping homosexual (5.9%) and/or bisexual (6.1%) self-identification". [2]
- The NHSLS survey reported an incidence of
male homosexuality of 4.9% "over the last 18 years" [3]
In general, surveys quoted by anti-gay activists tend to show figures nearer 1%, while surveys quoted by gay activists tend to
show figures nearer 10%. However, survey results can be expected to be biased by under-reporting. (See note 1.)
Homosexuality as one end of a bisexual continuum
Some people who are in general heterosexual may have mild or occasional interest in members of their own sex. Conversely, many
people who identify themselves as homosexual, or who might prefer homosexual activities or relationships, have engaged in
heterosexual activities or even have long-term heterosexual relationships. Such heterosexual behavior by people who otherwise
show homosexual behavior has often been part of being "in the closet," or
concealing one's homosexual orientation, and may be becoming less common as acceptance of homosexuality increases.
Some studies, notably Sexual
Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953)
by Alfred Kinsey, point out that when asked to rate themselves on a continuum from completely heterosexual to completely
homosexual, and when the individual's behavior as well as their identity is analyzed, the majority of people appear to be at
least somewhat bisexual. During their lives most people have some attraction to both sexes, although usually one sex is
preferred. Kinsey and his followers therefore consider only a minority (5-10%) to be fully or exclusively heterosexual
or homosexual. Conversely, only an even smaller minority can be considered "fully" bisexual, if that term is defined as having no
preference for one sex over another. Some later studies have suggested that Kinsey's studies exaggerate the occurrence of
bisexuality in the population at large, but his idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys wide acceptance.
Sexual activity with a person of the same sex, in and of itself, does not necessarily demonstrate homosexual orientation, but
is considered homosexual behavior. Not all who are attracted to or have sexual relationships with members of the same sex
identify themselves as homosexual or even bisexual. Some people frequently have sex with members of the same sex yet still see
themselves as heterosexual. It is important therefore to distinguish between homosexual behavior, homosexual attraction, and
homosexual identity, which need not coincide. For example, people in prison, the military, or other sex-segregated environments
may engage in situational homosexual behavior
despite being heterosexual outside these environments. In addition, some people engage in homosexual behaviors for reasons other
than desire. One example is male prostitutes (often called hustlers) who earn money by having sex with other men: while some hustlers are homosexual
themselves, a significant number are not.
Homosexual behavior in non-human animals
Main article: Homosexuality in
animals
Homosexual behavior appears to be widespread amongst birds and mammals such as apes, and
some believe that this behavior has its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits
shown in prison sexuality.
Homosexual behavior can be found amongst the bonobo, which is a fully bisexual species; the black swans of Australia will also form sexually active male-male mated pairs and steal nests or form temporary threesomes with
females to obtain eggs. A March 2004 study states that homosexuality in male sheep, which
is thought to be somewhat analogous to homosexuality in humans, is related to a region in their brain which is called "ovine
sexually dimorphic nucleus".
Theories on homosexuality and homosexual behavior
Some scholars in Queer studies, and most famously the French
philosopher Michel Foucault (though some have argued that his
opinions on this issue have been distorted by later scholars), attack the notion that sexual identities such as 'homosexuality',
'heterosexuality' or 'bisexuality' have any objective existence, viewing them instead as social constructions. (See Queer
theory.) A frequent argument used is that homosexuality prior to the modern period differed from modern
homosexuality (age-, gender- or class-structured rather than the more egalitarian seen today). Critics argue that, although
homosexuality in different periods has had different features, the underlying phenomenon has always existed and is not a recent
invention of our society or that, while the particular manifestations of homosexuality may highly depend on social factors, its
facticity remains constant.
Once homosexual desire or behavior has been singled out for attention, and especially negative attention, the question
naturally arises: What makes people this way? The causes of sexual orientation are currently under investigation. The general understanding that
seems to be emerging is that rather than a single cause being involved, there is instead a symphony of factors that act over a
long time to determine each individual's sexual orientation. Nurture, nature, or some combination of the two are often thought to determine human sexual
behavior.
One theory, presented by Susan Blackmore, is that homosexuality is
largely genetic in origin. The question of how homosexuals counterintuitively replicated their genes, given that homosexual sex
does not result in reproduction, can be answered by the theory that social dogma caused individuals with homosexual genes to
behave heterosexually and thus reproduce. This theory goes on to predict that homosexuality will be less common in the future
because, as we enter the information age, homosexuality will become more widely known and accepted, and therefore individuals
with homosexual genes will feel less inclined to behave heterosexually and will thus reproduce less frequently.
Prenatal hormones have been indicated both in Simon LeVay's study of the anterior hypothalamus in cadavers with homosexual
contraction of AIDS as cause of death and Marc Breedloves study of birth order and finger
length ratios in living individuals. LeVay's study suggests that homosexual men are feminized, Breedlove's study suggests that
both homosexual men and homosexual women are masculinized.
Imitation, a major mechanism of cultural transmission, may account for some
homosexual behavior. As representations of homosexuality are presented through television and other mass information replicators,
and as society becomes more tolerant of public affection between gay couples, homosexuality may have a much greater chance of
being imitated or the exploration of homosexual tendencies which have been repressed in the past may become more viable.
Society, religion, and the law
Societal attitudes
towards homosexuality have varied over the centuries, from homophobia to
social acceptance.
The religious response to homosexuality varies, though in most Abrahamic religions homosexuality is considered a sin; see religion and homosexuality for a comprehensive
discussion.
In some cultures, especially those influenced by anti-gay religions, homosexuality is considered a perversion and has been outlawed (see sodomy law,
consensual crime); in some jurisdictions homosexual behaviour is a
capital crime. Persecution of homosexuals ("gay bashing") in such cultures is common; the experience of
homosexuals in Nazi Germany is an egregious
example.
In pre-industrial societies homosexuality was generally accepted by
the lower classes while some members of upper classes considered it immoral. However
with the rise of urbanisation and the nuclear family homosexuality became much less tolerated and even outlawed in some cases.
Beginning in the 20th century, gay rights movements, as part of the broader
civil rights movements, in concert with the development
of the often activist academic treatment of sexuality in queer studies,
have led to changes in social acceptance and in the media portrayal of homosexuality. The legalization of same-sex marriage and non-gender-specific civil
unions is one of the major goals of gay rights activism. A number of jurisdictions have relaxed or eliminated laws curbing
homosexual behavior, including sodomy laws and laws preventing homosexuals from serving
in armed forces.
History
Main article:History of
homosexuality
When discussing the history of homosexuality, one must first understand that the term 'homosexuality' and its associated
meanings are a product of 19th century psychology as well as the years of post-Stonewall gay liberation. Throughout most of written history, homosexual relations
usually took the form of pederasty (as distinguished from pedophilia), that is, they were characterized by a marked age difference and the fixed
assignment of sexual roles. Another paradigm would be the two-spirited people
of the American continent or the arivanna (see hijra) of the Indian
sub-continent in which partners of the same biological sex but different social genders would be common.
The earliest western documents concerning homosexual relationships come from Ancient Greece, where same-sex relationships were a societal norm. Kenneth J. Dover has claimed that
such relationships did not replace marriage between man and woman, but occurred before and beside it. These relationships were
typically pederastic, and it would be unusual for a man to have a mature male mate (though some did, such as Alexander the Great and Agathon in Plato's Symposium) ; a greater number of men would be the erastes (lover) to a young
eromenos (loved one). In this relationship, claims Dover, it was considered "improper" for the eromenos to feel desire,
as that would not be masculine. Driven by desire and admiration, the erastes would devote himself unselfishly to providing all
the education his eromenos required to thrive in society. In recent times, the research by Dover has been questioned in light of
massive evidence of love poetry and paintings on ceramic vases, which suggest a more emotional connection than earlier
researchers have liked to acknowledge.
The sexual orientation of pre-modern figures is a topic of intense controversy. It may be accepted, for example, that the sex
lives of historical figures such as Alexander the Great,
Plato, Hadrian, Virgil, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Christopher Marlowe included or were centred upon relationships with people of their own gender. Terms
such as homosexual or bisexual might be applied to them in that sense. But many regard this as risking the anachronistic
introduction of a modern social construction of sexuality that is foreign to their times. For example, their societies might have
focused upon the sexual role one took in these encounters, namely active, passive, both, or neither, as a key social marker. This
particular system of designation is currently the norm in many areas of Latin
America.
It could be noted, on the other hand, that when evidence that a particular historical figure's sex life pointed exclusively
toward an attraction to people of an opposite gender describing them as heterosexual rarely evokes such controversy. This
tendency among Western historians, to view heterosexuality as an acceptable norm while regarding arguments that a particular
historical figure may have been homosexual as controversial or requiring more evidence than a claim of opposite-sex attraction
might warrant, is often attributed to homophobia on the part of historians and is referred to within queer studies as heteronormativity.
During the last few decades, in part due to their history of shared oppression, homosexuals in the West have developed a
shared culture, although not all homosexuals participate in it, and many
homosexual men and women specifically decline to do so. (See gay pride.)
Homosexuality in Asian, specifically Chinese and
Japanese, cultures has been acknowledged since at least 600BCE. Such relationships were similarly pederastic and marked by differences in age and social position. For more
information see homosexuality in China and Homosexuality in Japan.
In many societies of Melanesia homosexuality is an intergral part of the
culture. In some tribes of Papua New Guinea for example it is
considered ritual for a boy to have a same sex relationship as a part of his ascent into manhood. Many Melanesian societies
however have become less tolerant of homosexuality since the introduction on Christianity by European missionaries.
Related articles
- Human sexual orientation:
- History, the law, religion and morality, contemporary attitudes:
External links and references
- The Androphile Project - The World
History of Male Love
- Encyclopedia of gay,lesbian, bisexual,
transgender & queer culture
- [4]
Halsall's Gay History Page
- GLSEN: Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education
Network
- Human Rights Campaign
- International Lesbian and Gay Association
- Lambda Legal Defense Fund
- OHSU [5]
- The Sheep Study
- The Breedlove Study .
- LeVay, S., Science, 1991, 253, 1034–1037.
- Lester G. Brown, Two Spirit People, 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4
- Kenneth J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality, 1979, Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., London, ISBN 0674362616 (o.p. hardcover), ISBN 0674362705 (pbk.).
- Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China, The University of California Press,
1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7.
- Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 1948, ISBN 0721654452 (o.p.), ISBN 0253334128 (reprint).
- Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, 1953, ISBN 0721654509 (o.p.), ISBN 0671786156 (o.p. pbk.), ISBN 025333411X (reprint).
- Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, (1998), "On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community
Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27", Journal of Homosexuality, Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18.
- Smith, T.W. (1991). Adult sexual behavior in 1989: Number of partners, frequency of intercourse and risk of AIDS. Family
Planning Perspectives 23(3), 102-107.
Source
- Bullough et. al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815312873.
Footnote
[1]: Survey responses are often conditioned by the desire not to express opinions or supply information of
which the respondent suspects society or the questioner may not approve. Revealing one's sexual orientation may well fall into
this category, so affecting the accuracy of some surveys and under-estimating the actual scale of homosexuality. A similar
phenomenon affects survey data on minority religions, on personal views on controversial matters such as abortion, and on degrees
of political support for a political party. (Classic examples of this are not 'admitting' support in surveys in the late 1990s
for the British Conservative Party, or
controversial parties like the Democratic Unionist
Party and Sinn Féin in Northern Ireland, etc. with such parties getting a higher vote in the privacy of a ballot box than
reported in surveys.) The NORC data has been criticised because the original design sampling techniques were not followed, and
depended upon direct self report regarding masturbation and same sex
behaviors. (For example, the original data in the early 1990s reported that approximately 40% of adult males had never
masturbated--a finding inconsistent with some other studies.)
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