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Biodiversity or biological diversity is a neologism from bio and diversity. It is the diversity of
and in living nature. Diversity, at its heart, implies the number of different kinds of
objects, such as species. However, defining biodiversity or measures of biodiversity, is not so simple.
The term biological diversity, was coined by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980,
while the word biodiversity itself, was coined by the entomologist E.O.
Wilson in 1986, in a report for the first American Forum on biological diversity organized by the National Research Council (NRC). The word biodiversity
was suggested to him by the staff of NRC, to replace biological diversity, considered to be less effective in terms of
communication.
Since 1986 the terms and the concept have achieved widespread use among biologists, environmentalists, political leaders, and
concerned citizens world-wide. This use has coincided with the expansion of concern over extinction observed in the last decades of the 20th century.
Biodiversity definitions
Biological diversity has no single standard definition. One definition holds that biological diversity is a measure of the
relative diversity among organisms present in different ecosystems. "Diversity" in this definition includes diversity within
species, among species, and comparative diversity among ecosystems.
Another definition, simpler and clearer, but more challenging, is the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a
region. An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most instances of its use, and one possibly unified
view of the traditional three levels at which biodiversity has been identified:
The lattermost definition, which conforms to the traditional five organisation layers in biology, provides additional
justification for multilevel approaches.
If the gene is the fundamental unit of natural selection, thus of evolution, some, like E.O. Wilson, say that the real
biodiversity is the genetic diversity. However, the species diversity is the easiest one to study.
For geneticists, biodiversity is the diversity of genes and organisms. They study processes such as mutations, gene exchanges, and genome dynamics that
occur at the DNA level and generate evolution.
For biologists, biodiversity is the diversity of populations of organisms and
species, but also the way these organisms function. Organisms appear and disappear; sites are colonized by organisms of the same
species or by another. Some species develop social organisations to improve their reproduction goals or use neighbor species that live in
communities. Depending on their environment, organisms do not invariably use
the same strategies of reproduction, .
For ecologists, biodiversity is also the diversity of durable interactions
among species. It not only applies to species, but also to their immediate environment (biotope) and the ecoregions the organisms live in. In each
ecosystem, living organisms are part of a whole, they interact with one another, but also with the air, water, and soil that
surround them.
Origin of life and biodiversity evolution
See also biodiversity and
evolution
Biodiversity found on Earth today is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution. In spite of several extinctions, the Earth supports more biodiversity today than in any other period in history.
<--need to find references--> Estimates of global species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million species, with a
best estimate of somewhere near 10 million.
New species are regularly discovered (on average about three new species of birds each year) and many, though discovered, are
not yet classified (an estimate gives that about 40% of freshwater fishes from South America are not classified yet). Most of the
diversity is found in tropical forests.
What are biodiversity benefits ?
Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to the development of human culture, and, in turn, human communities have played a
major role in shaping the diversity of nature at the genetic, species, and ecological levels.
There are three main reasons commonly cited in the literature for the benefits of biodiversity.
Ecological role of biodiversity
All species provide a sort of function to an ecosystem. They can act as producers, decomposers, help to cycle water and
nutrients throughout the ecosystem, can control erosion and pests, fix atmospheric gases, and can help regulate climate.
Ecosystems also provide us various supports of production (soil fertility, pollinator of plants, predators,
decomposition of wastes...) and services such as purification of the air and
water, stabilisation and moderation of the climate, decrease of flooding, drought and
other environmental disasters.
These functions are important to an ecosystem, and to human survival.
Research show that the more diverse an ecosystem the better it can withstand environmental stress. The loss of a species thus
decrease the ability of the system to maintain itself or the recover in case of damage.
Economical role of biodiversity
For all humans, biodiversity is first a resource for
daily life. Such 'crop diversity' is also called agrobiodiversity.
Most people see biodiversity as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and
cosmetic products. This concept of biological resources management probably explains most fears of resources disappearance
related to the erosion of the biodiversity. However, it is also is the origin of new conflicts dealing with rules of division and
appropriation of natural resources.
Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are:
- biodiversity is providing food : crops, livestock, forestry, and fish; (see also
local food);
- biodiversity has a role in medication. Wild plant species have been used
for medicinal purposes since before the beginning of recorded history. For example, quinine comes from cinchona tree (used to treat malaria), digitalis from the foxglove plant (chronic heart trouble), and morphine from the
poppy plant (pain relief). According the National Cancer
Institute, over 70 % of the promising anti-cancer drugs come from plants in the tropical rainforests. Animal may also play a role, in particular in research. It is estimated that of
the 250,000 known plant species, only 5,000 have been researched for possible medical applications.
- Industry : for example fibers for
clothing, wood for shelter and warmth. Biodiversity may be a source of energy (such as
biomass). Other industrial products are oils,
lubricants, perfumes, fragrances, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, latexes, resins, poisons and cork can all be derived from various plant species. Supplies from
animal origin are wool, silk, fur, leather, lubricants, waxes. Animal may also be used as a mode of transportation.
- Tourism and recreation :
biodiversity is a source of economical wealth for many areas, such as many parks and
forests, where wild nature and animals are a source of beauty and joy for many people.
Ecotourism in particular, is a growing outdoor recreational activity.
Ecologists and environmentalists were the first to insist on the economic aspect of biological diversity protection. Thus,
Edward O. Wilson wrote in 1992, that :la biodiversité est
l'une des plus grandes richesses de la plančte, et pourtant la moins reconnue comme telle.
Estimation of the value of biodiversity is a necessary precondition to any discussion on the distribution of biodiversity
richnesses. This value can be divided into use value (direct such as tourism or indirect such as pollination) or non-use or
intrinsic value.
If biological resources represent an ecological interest for the community, their economic value is also increasing. New products are developed thanks to biotechnologies,
and new markets created. For society, biodiversity also is a field of activity and profit. It requires a proper management setup
to determine how these resources are to be used.
The majority of species have yet to be evaluated for their current or future economic importance.
Ethical role of biodiversity
Finally, the role of biodiversity is to be a mirror of our relationships with the other living species, an ethical view with rights, duties, and education. If humans consider species have a right to
exist, they cannot cause voluntarily their extinction. Besides, biodiversity is also part of many cultures spiritual heritage
(see indigenous people and cultural diversity).
Scientific role of biodiversity
Biodiversity is important because each species can give scientists some clue as to how life evolved and will continue to
evolve on Earth. In addition, biodiversity helps scientists understand how life functions and the role of each species in
sustaining ecosystems.
See also Environmental economics
Evaluation of biodiversity
How to measure biodiversity?
From the viewpoint previously defined, no single objective measure of biodiversity is possible, only measures relating to
particular purposes or applications.
For practical conservationists, this measure should quantify a value that is at the same time broadly shared among
locally-affected people.
For others, a broader and more economically defensible definition is that measures should allow to ensure continued
possibilities both for adaptation and future use by people, assuring environmental sustainability. As a consequence, biologists argued that this measure is likely to be associated with the
variety of genes. Since it cannot always be said which genes are more likely to prove beneficial, the best choice for conservation is to assure the persistence of as many genes as possible.
For ecologists, this approach is sometimes considered inadequate and too restricted.
Biodiversity: time and space
Biodiversity is not static: it is a system in constant evolution, from a species, as well as from an individual organism point
of view. The average half-life of a species is around one million years and 99% of the species that have ever lived on
earth are today extinct.
Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on earth. It is consistently richer in the tropics. As one approaches polar regions one
finds larger and larger populations of fewer and fewer species. Flora and fauna vary depending on climate, altitude, soils and the presence of other species. For a listing of
distinct ecoregions based on these distributions, see the WikiProject Ecoregions.
Species inventory
Systematics assesses biodiversity
simply by distinguishing among species. At least 1.75 million species have been described; however, the estimates of the true
number of current species range from 3.6 to more than 100 million. Some also say that the knowledge of the species and the
families became insufficient and must be supplemented by a greater comprehension of the functions, interactions and communities.
Moreover, exchanges of genes occurring between the species tend to add complexity to the inventory.
Hotspots of biodiversity
One definition of a hotspot of biodiversity is a spot with many endemic
species. Hotspots tend to occur in areas of growing human impact. Most of these spots are located in the tropics.
Some of them are:
- Brazil is said to represent 1/5 of the world biodiversity, with 50,000 plant species, 5,000 vertebrates, 10-15 million
insects, millions of microorganisms, etc.
- India is said to represent 8% of the recorded species, with 47,000 plants species and 81,000 animals.
See also: biogeography, Amazonian forest, species inventory, extinction, Unified neutral theory of
biodiversity.
Is biodiversity threatened?
During the last decades, an erosion of biodiversity was observed. A majority of biologists believe that a mass
extinction is under way. Although divided over the numbers, many scientifics believe that the rate of loss is greater
now than at any time in history.
Some studies show that about one of eight known plant species is threatened with extinction. Every year, between 17,000 and 100,000 species vanish from our planet . Some people say that up to
1/5 of all living species could disappear within 30 years. Nearly all say that the losses are due to human activities, in
particular destruction of plant and animal habitats.
Some justify this situation not so much by a species overuse or ecosystem degradation than by their conversion in very
standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation). Before 1992,
others pointed out that no property rights or no access regulation of resources necessarily lead to their decrease (degrading
costs having to be supported by the community).
Among the dissenters, some argue that there are not enough data to support the view of mass extinction, and say abusive
extrapolations are being made on the global destruction of rainforests,
coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and
other rich habitats.
Biodiversity management: conservation, preservation and protection
The conservation of biological diversity has become a
global concern. Although not everybody agrees on extent and significance of current extinction, most consider biodiversity
essential. There are basically two main types of conservation options, in-situ and ex-situ conservation. In-situ
conservation. In-situ is usually seen as the ultimate conservation strategy. However, its implementation is sometimes
unfeasible. For example, destruction of rare or endangered species' habitats sometimes requires ex-situ conservation efforts. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation can
provide a backup solution to in-situ conservation projects. Some believe both types of conservation are required to ensure proper
preservation. An example of an in-situ conservation effort is the setting-up of protection areas. An example of an ex-situ
conservation effort, by contrast, would be planting germplasts in seedbanks. Such efforts allow the preservation of large
populations of plants with minimal genetic erosion.
The threat to biological diversity was among the hot topics discussed at the UN World Summit for Sustainable Development, in
hope of seeing the foundation of a Global Conservation Trust to help maintain plant collections.
See also: conservation, seedbank, IUCN, Global
200.
Juridical status of biological diversity
Biodiversity must be evaluated and its evolution analysed (through observations, inventories, conservation...) then it must be
taken into account in political decisions. It is beginning to receive a juridical setting.
- "Law and ecosystems" relationship is very ancient and has consequences on biodiversity. It is related to properties rights,
private and public. It can define protection for threatened ecosystems, but also some rights and duties (for example, fishing rights, hunting rights).
- "Laws and species" is a more recent issue. It defines species that must be protected because threatened by extinction. Some
people question application of these laws.
- "Laws and genes" is only about a century old. While the genetic approach is not new (domestication, plant traditional
selection methods), progress made in the genetic field in the past 20 years lead to the obligation to tighten laws. With the new
technologies of genetic and genetic engineering, people are
going through gene patenting, processes patenting, and a totally new concept of genetic
resource. A very hot debate today seeks to define whether the resource is the gene, the organism, the DNA or the processes.
The 1972 UNESCO convention established that biological resources, such as plants, were common heritage of
mankind. These rules probably inspired the creation of great public banks of genetic resources, located outside the
source-countries.
New global agreements (Convention on Biological Diversity), now gives sovereign national rights over
biological resources (not property). The idea of static conservation of biodiversity is disappearing and being replaced
by the idea of a dynamic conservation, through the notion of resource and innovation.
The new agreements commit countries to conserve the biodiversity, develop resources for
sustainability and share the benefits resulting from their use. Under these new rules, it is expected
that bioprospecting or collection of natural products has to be allowed
by the biodiversity-rich country, in exchange for a share of the benefits.
Sovereignety principles can rely upon what is better known as Access and Benefit Sharing Agreements (ABAs). The Convention on Biodiversity spirit
implies a prior informed consent between the source country and the
collector, to establish which resource will be used and for what, and to settle on a fair agreement on benefit sharing. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when those principles are not respected.
See also
External links
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